Sleep, boyfriend, African-American,
bear…A frame-based analysis of the
typology of metonymic euphemisms
Alexander Tokar
University of Düsseldorf
CTF 09
Düsseldorf, August 24-26, 2009

Euphemisms
 “Metaphoric Extension and Invited Inferencing in Semantic Change”
Karen Sullivan
2nd International Workshop on Metaphor and Discourse
February 2-3, 2006
University of Castelló de la Plana (Spain)
I am seeing this hot girl named Sarah. She is awesome.
I know you’re not married, but are you seeing anyone right now?
SEEING ANOTHER PERSON = DATING HER
‘DATING’ IN OTHER LANGUAGES
 Russians „MEET‟ each other. (Rus. встречаться)
 Germans „GO OUT‟ with each other. (Ger. mit jemandem ausgehen)

Dating-euphemisms
 Metonymic extensions of the meanings “see,” “meet,” and “go out”:
People who are DATING EACH OTHER are literally SEEING EACH OTHER.
People who are DATING EACH OTHER are literally MEETING EACH OTHER.
People who are DATING EACH OTHER are often literally GOING OUT WITH EACH OTHER.
 But SEEING, MEETING, and GOING OUT WITH ANOTHER PERSON are
not the most important characteristics of DATING!!!
The most important characteristic is SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP!!!
EUPHEMISTIC STRATEGY
REPLACEMENT OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC SEXUAL
RELATIONSHIP BY THE LESS IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS SEEING,
MEETING, AND GOING OUT WITH ANOTHER PERSON.

Similar euphemisms
to sleep with somebody = to copulate, to engage in sexual intercourse
 The conceptual grounding of this metonymy are the facts that:
LOVERS often literally SLEEP WITH EACH OTHER.
PHYSICAL SLEEPING is often immediately followed by COPULATION.
 But PHYSICAL SLEEPING is not the most important characteristic of
COPULATION!!!
The most important characteristic is SEXUAL INTERCOURSE!!!
EUPHEMISTIC STRATEGY
REPLACEMENT OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC SEXUAL
INTERCOURSE BY THE LESS IMPORTANT, BUT TABOO-FREE
CHARACTERISTIC PHYSICAL SLEEPING.

Similar euphemisms
boyfriend = a person with whom a woman has a romantic or sexual
relationship
 The conceptual grounding of this metonymy is the fact that:
A BOYFRIEND is usually (perceived as) a woman’s FRIEND.
 But FRIENDSHIP is not the most important characteristic of
BOYFRIEND-SHIP!!!
The most important characteristic is SEXUAL RELATIONSHIP!!!
EUPHEMISTIC STRATEGY
REPLACEMENT OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC SEXUAL
RELATIONSHIP BY THE LESS IMPORTANT, BUT TABOO-FREE
CHARACTERISTIC FRIENDSHIP.

Similar euphemisms
African-American = a black person
 The conceptual grounding of this metonymy is the fact that:
The ancestors of a BLACK PERSON were indeed born in AFRICA.
 But AFRICAN ORIGIN OF HER/HIS ANCESTORS is not the most
important characteristic of a BLACK PERSON!!!
The most important characteristic is BLACK SKIN PIGMENTATION!!!
EUPHEMISTIC STRATEGY
REPLACEMENT OF THE MOST IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC BLACK SKIN
PIGMENTATION BY THE LESS IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTIC AFRICAN
ORIGIN OF HER/HIS ANCESTORS.

default versus non-default
Kövecses, Zoltán and Günter Radden 1998.
METONYMY: DEVELOPING A COGNITIVE LINGUISTIC VIEW.
Cognitive Linguistics 9 (1), 37-77.
 Default metonymies are metonymies in which the choice of the vehicle
concept fulfills the principles HUMAN OVER NON-HUMAN, CONCRETE OVER
ABSTRACT, INTERACTIONAL OVER NON-INTERACTIONAL, IMMEDIATE OVER
NON-IMMEDIATE, OCCURENT OVER NON-OCCURENT, DOMINANT OVER LESS
DOMINANT, GOOD GESTALT OVER POOR GESTALT, SPECIFIC OVER GENERIC,
STEREOTYPICAL OVER NON-STEREOTYPICAL, CENTRAL OVER PERIPHERAL,
IMPORTANT OVER LESS IMPORTANT, CLEAR OVER LESS CLEAR, RELEVANT
OVER IRRELEVANT.
The more of these principles apply to a particular metonymic expression,
the greater the cognitive motivation. As a result, the metonymy will be
regarded as natural or “default.” (p. 71)

Default metonymies
Prime Minister of England
 Prime Minister of England is a default metonymy because the
vehicle concept ENGLAND fulfills the principle DOMINANT OVER LESS
DOMINANT:
 England is the most dominant part of the United Kingdom.

Non-default metonymies
 SEEING, MEETING, and GOING OUT WITH ANOTHER PERSON are not
the most important characteristics of DATING!!!
 PHYSICAL SLEEPING is not the most important characteristic of
COPULATION!!!
 FRIENDSHIP BETWEEN A WOMAN AND HER BOYFRIEND is not the
most important characteristic of BOYFRIENDSHIP!!!
 AFRICAN ORIGIN OF HER/HIS ANCESTORS is not the most important
characteristic of a BLACK PERSON!!!
 See, meet, go out, sleep, boyfriend, and African-American
are non-default metonymies violating the principle
IMPORTANT OVER LESS IMPORTANT.
Is this true of all metonymic euphemisms???

Methodology
Richard W. Holder 1995.
A DICTIONARY OF EUPHEMISMS. HOW NOT TO SAY WHAT YOU MEAN.
Oxford University Press.
1. comparison of the vehicle and target meanings, e.g., „physical sleeping‟ and
„copulation‟ of sleep;
2. classification (e.g., sleep is a non-default metonymy which violates the
principle IMPORTANT OVER LESS IMPORTANT).
METONYMY VERSUS METAPHOR
METONYMY ~ real link between the vehicle and the target
E.g. sleep „copulate‟
METAPHOR ~ absence of such connection
E.g. country in transition „a poor and backward country‟

Classification of metonymies
1. PART-FOR-WHOLE metonymies
blazes „hell‟
BLAZES FOR THE ENTIRE HELL-FRAME
2. WHOLE-FOR-PART metonymies
E.g. act like a husband „to copulate with a woman extramaritally‟
THE ENTIRE HUSBAND-FRAME FOR SEXUAL INTERCOURSE
3. PART-FOR-PART metonymies
E.g. sleep „copulate‟
PHYSICAL SLEEPING AND COPULATION ARE ELEMENTS OF THE SPENDING
TIME TOGETHER-FRAME

Results
• ~72% metonymies
• ~23% metaphors
• ~5% other linguistic strategies, e.g., shortening, rhyming slang, etc.
44 EDUCATION-euphemisms
• 8 metaphors:
backward „retarded in intellectual development‟
home economics „theory and practice of homemaking‟
referred „failed‟ (original meaning „put back‟)
retard/retarded „a person with inability to learn‟
slow „stupid‟
to can „to dismiss for misconduct or academic failure‟ (imagery: putting in the can)
plucked from us „failing to graduate‟
to ship „to dismiss from employment‟
• 32 metonymies

Education-euphemisms
32 metonymies
• 27 part-for-part non-default metonymies violating the principle
IMPORTANT OVER LESS IMPORTANT:
academic dismissal „expulsion from college for misconduct or academic failure‟
attention deficit disorder „stupidity‟
concentration problem „idleness‟
developmental „associated with ignorance or lack of ability‟
disturbed „naughty or ill-disciplined‟
less academic/less gifted/ less talented „stupid or unteachable‟
less prepared „of inferior attainment‟
limited „stupid or incompetent‟
maladjusted „naughty or stupid‟
precocious „spoilt or ill-mannered‟
to rusticate „(of British students) to dismiss for a while from college‟
school phobia syndrome „school avoidance syndrome‟

Education-euphemisms
32 metonymies
• 5 euphemisms exhibiting a different metonymic pattern
access course „a class to enable those lacking suitable qualifications to enter higher
education‟
care „the guardianship of children by a local authority (often of children who may
be unruly or criminal or have parents unfit to look after them)‟
language arts „the ability to speak coherently‟
open access „needing no qualification‟
remedial education „applying to the dull and the lazy‟
REGIONAL JET-euphemisms
 They do not violate the principle IMPORTANT OVER LESS IMPORTANT.
 They violate the principle SPECIFIC OVER GENERIC.
 There is a hyponimic relation between the vehicle and the target:
SUPERORDINATE FOR HYPONYM

Poverty-euphemisms
82 expressions
• 22 metaphors
backward „poor and uncivilized‟
country in transition „a poor and backward country‟
emerging/emergent „poor and uncivilized‟
first world/third world „rich‟/„poor‟
California blankets „newspapers used by the destitute as bedding‟
church/church house „an institute for the destitute‟
near „stingy‟ (original meaning „close‟)
deadhead „a non-enterprising person who is not paying his way‟
demographic strain „too many people‟
floater „an undesirable‟ (imagery: a corpse in the water )
to the knuckle „devoid of resources‟
vulnerable „poor‟
depleted „poor‟

Poverty-euphemisms
58 metonymies
• 41 part-for-part metonymies violating the principle IMPORTANT
OVER LESS IMPORTANT:
the casual „an institution that housed the destitute‟
developing „poor and relatively uncivilized‟
differently advantaged „poor or affected by other taboos‟
disadvantaged „poor‟
economically abused „poor‟
fumble for a check „try to get out of paying for a shared meal‟
gentleman „unemployed‟
inner city „slum‟
less developed „poor‟
negatively privileged „an undesirable‟
non-industrial „poor‟
south „the poorer countries‟
underprivileged „poor‟

Poverty-euphemisms
58 metonymies
• 17 superordinate-for-hyponym metonymies violating the principle
SPECIFIC OVER GENERIC:
aid „a gift from a rich country to a poor country‟
careful „stingy‟
claimant „a person who is supported in part or whole by the state‟
deprived „poor‟
financial assistance „state aid to the poor‟
flit „leave accommodation without paying due rent‟
seen better days „poor‟
shorts „poverty‟
social worker „a public employee who helps the poor‟
stroller „´habitual itinerant‟
tied aid „the donor is arranging the credits or spending cash to assist its exporters‟
urban renewal „slum clearance‟
workhouse „a poorhouse where able-bodied poor are compelled to labor‟

Copulation-euphemisms
102 expressions
• 42 metaphors:
all the way „(of sexual activity) full-penetration‟ (SEX IS A JOURNEY)
to boff „to copulate‟ (imagery: hitting)
to bonk „to copulate‟ (imagery: hitting)
boom-boom „to copulate‟ (imagery: firing of a gun)
big prize „copulation‟ (SEX IS A GAME)
to buckle to „copulation‟ (imagery: auto)
to bull/bullock „to copulate‟
clean-living „refraining from promiscuous copulation‟ (MORAL LIFE IS BEING CLEAN)
amatory rites „copulation‟
amorous sport „copulation‟
to bang „to copulate‟ (imagery: beating)
beard „the female pubic hair‟
beats with two backs „copulation‟
to block „copulate‟ (imagery: impeding the motion)

Copulation-euphemisms
49 metonymies
• 25 part-for-part metonymies violating the principle IMPORTANT
OVER LESS IMPORTANT:
to accommodate „to copulate with extramaritally‟
to be nice to somebody „to copulate with extramaritally‟
to be with somebody „to copulate with extramaritally‟
to beat the mattress „to copulate‟
bed and breakfast „a single act of extramarital overnight copulation‟
to beg a child of „to copulate with‟
belly to belly „copulating‟
blanket drill „masturbation‟
bouncy-bouncy „copulation‟
buttock-ball „copulation‟
to climb „to copulate‟
coition „copulation‟ (lit. „mutual attraction‟)
come to „to copulate‟

Copulation-euphemisms
49 metonymies
• 24 superprdinate-for-hyponym metonymies violating the principle
SPECIFIC OVER GENERIC:
to abuse „to use for taboo sexual purposes‟
all right „sexually attractive‟
association „regular copulation with someone other than your spouse‟
to attend to „to copulate‟
baser need „the need to copulate‟
bed work „copulation‟
to betray „to copulate with a third party while married‟
a bit of the other „a single act of extramarital copulation‟
to bother „to make unwelcome sexual approaches‟
to break a commandment „to copulate outside marriage‟
capital act „copulation‟
to cheat „to copulate with somebody other than your sexual partner‟
to do (it) „to copulate‟

Taboos of fear and awe
Rus. медведь
A BEAR is literally a HONEY-EATER in Russian.
This metonymy violates the principle GOOD GESTALT OVER POOR
GESTALT.

Religion-euphemisms
69 expressions
• 55 part-for-whole non-default metonymies violating the principle
GOOD GESTALT OVER POOR GESTALT:
auld „devil‟ (auld is the Scottish form of old)
black gentleman „devil‟
dark man „devil‟
good man „devil‟
horny „devil‟
Nick „devil‟
blazes „hell‟
hot place „hell‟
cunning man „wizard‟
wise man „wizard‟
good neighbors „the fairies‟
grunter „pig‟
furry thing „rabbit‟

Concluding remarks
 Metonymic euphemisms can be classified into:
1. non-default metonymies violating the principle IMPORTANT OVER
LESS IMPORTANT
SLEEP-EUPHEMISMS
2. non-default metonymies violating the principle SPECIFIC OVER
GENERIC
REGIONAL JET-EUPHEMISMS
3. non-default metonymies violating the principle GOOD GESTALT
POOR GESTALT
BEAR-EUPHEMISMS