a quick review on learning..have a look

1. Dr.Akshada Sabnis

2. study of learning can be traced back to
roughly the turn of the 20th century, when
two great traditions in biology began to
focus on behavior and learning.
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov first saw
the importance of what is now called
classical (or Pavlovian) conditioning.

3. Also working at the turn of the 20th century,
Edward Thorndike .
In the late 1930s, B. F. Skinner expanded
Thorndike's method by enclosing rats in a box
and allowing them to operate a lever attached
to the wall to earn a food-pellet reward.

4. DEFINITION OF LEARNING: A relatively
permanent change in behavior that occurs as
a result of experience –( Witting and Hilgard)
Learning may be through training,
experience, reading, observation,
discussions, electronic media including
internet, experimentation, facing the new
challenges, travel and exploration etc. hence
training and development is more tools for
learning.

5. Learning is the one of the important psychological
process determine the human behavior.
learning is the process of accumulation of knowledge,
skills and attitudes. (KSA)
Learning is not a one time activity or an annual,
half yearly, quarterly or monthly activity. Learning
is a continues process.

6. • Changes resulting from maturation such as
growing, innate tendencies like reflexes and
conditions caused by fatigue, drugs and diseases
are strictly not considered as learned behaviour.

7. Association: Horn-Car, Symbol-
Direction, Smoke-Fire
Reinforcement: that strengthen
the association of stimulus. Positive
or negative consequences of a
behavior.
Continuity: Faster presentation
of unconditioned stimulus after the
presentation of conditioned
stimulus
Motives: a precondition for any
type of learning

8. Laws (principles) of learning are:
Readiness
Exercise
Effect
Primacy
Intensity
Recency
Freedom

9. Law of effect.
learning is strengthened when accompanied by
a pleasant or satisfying feeling.
learning is weakened when associated with an
unpleasant feeling.
learning takes places properly when it results in
satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of
it.
School activities should be organized in increasing
difficulty order so that the students may progress
without any failure..

10. The law of exercise
This principle states that the S-R connection
is strengthened by use and weakened with
disuse.
It has two parts: law of use and law of disuse.
Things most often repeated are best
remembered.
Students do not learn complex tasks in a
single session.
The instructor must repeat important items of
subject matter at reasonable intervals.

11. Law of readiness
This principle states that motivation is
needed to develop an association or
display changed behavior.
Individuals learn best when they are
physically, mentally, and emotionally ready
to learn, and they do not learn well if they
see no reason for learning.

12. Law of Primacy
Things learned first create a strong impression.
What is taught must be right the first time.
“Unteaching” wrong first impressions is harder than
teaching them right the first time.
Law of Recency
things most recently learned are best remembered.
frequent review and summarization help fix in the
mind the material covered.

13. Law of Intensity
the more intense the material taught, the
more likely it will be retained.
a student will learn more from the real thing
than from a substitute.
Law (Principle) of Freedom
things freely learned are best learned.
the greater the freedom enjoyed by the
students in the class, the greater the
intellectual and moral advancement enjoyed
by them.

14. 1.Environmental
a)bad family atmosphere
b)work related problems
c)locality related
2.Motivational
a)intrinsic
b)extrinsic
3.Physiological
a)organic defects
b)age related
c)fatigue
d)time of the day
e)drugs like alcohol,caffeine,tobacco.

15. Classical learning
Operant learning/instrumental learning
Cognitive learning
Social learning

16. Pavlov’s Contribution
Classical Conditioning: learning that occurs
when a neutral stimulus (CS) becomes paired
(associated) with an unconditioned stimulus
(UCS) to elicit a conditioned response (CR)

17. It is One of the best known aspects of
behavioural learning theory.(discovered by
Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov)
It is a learning process that occurs in
association between an environmental
stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus.
Pavlovs classic example involves measuring
how much a dog salivates in response to food
or other things in the environment.

19. Unconditioned stimulus(US):
A stimulus that naturally and automatically
would evoke a response. Eg:the smell of the
food.
Conditioned stimulus or neutral
stimulus(CS):
Except for an alerting or attentional response
the first few times it is presented, it doesn’t
evoke a response. Eg: a sound of the bell in
pavlovs experiment

20. Conditioned response:
It is that learned response that eventually
occurs to the previously neutral stimulus,
after a neutral conditioned stimulus is
associated with an unconditioned stimulus
.
Unconditioned response:the response
that follows the unconditioned stimulus.

21. The 2 stimuli are paired separated by ½ a
second or several seconds a number of
times (each pairing called a trial) , until
presentation of the originally neutral
stimulus evokes a response called
conditioned response.
As more trials are given the conditioned
response grows stronger and are more
likely to occur.

22. Acquisition: it is the initial stage of learning
when a response is first established and
gradually strengthened.
Extinction: occurs when the conditioned
stimulus is presented alone without the
unconditioned stimulus for a number of trials.
The strength and magnitude of conditioned
response gradually decreases. The response
is said to be forgotten over time.

23. Spontaneous recovery is the
reappearance of the conditioned response
after a rest period or a period of lessened
response, it states that extinction does not
completely erase conditioning.
Reconditioning which is usually more
rapid than the original conditioning ; when
the CS and US are paired again.

24. Stimulus generalization is the tendency for the
conditioned response to occur in response to other
stimuli similar to the original conditional stimulus.
Eg ; the dog salivated with the sound of the bell
would do the same at the sound of a buzzer.
Discrimination: the process of learning to make
one response to one stimulus and a different
response to another stimulus. eg: tell the
difference between the bell and other sounds.

25. Forward conditioning: Learning is fastest in
forward conditioning. During forward
conditioning the onset of the CS precedes the
onset of the US.
• Delay conditioning: In delay conditioning the CS is
presented and is overlapped by the presentation of the
US.
• Trace conditioning: The CS is presented, a period of
time is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli are
presented, and then the US is presented. The
stimulus-free period is called the trace interval. It may
also be called the conditioning interval.

26. Simultaneous conditioning: During
simultaneous conditioning, the CS and US
are presented and terminated at the same
time.
Temporal conditioning: The US is
presented at regularly timed intervals, and
CR acquisition is dependent upon correct
timing of the interval between US
presentations.

27. Backward conditioning: Backward conditioning
occurs when a conditional stimulus immediately follows
an unconditional stimulus.
the conditional stimulus serves as a signal that the
unconditional stimulus has ended, rather than a
reliable method of predicting the future occurrence of
the unconditional stimulus.
Unpaired conditioning: The CS and US are not
presented together. Usually they are presented as
independent trials that are separated by a variable, or
pseudo-random, interval. This procedure is used to
study non-associative behavioral responses, such
as sensitization.

28. Stimulation Substitution: originated by
Pavlov
The CS as a result of repeated pairing with
the US acquires the capacity to substitute for
the US in evoking a response.
He theorized that 2 areas in the brain are
become activated during the procedure of
conditioning , as a result of pairing the CS
acquires the ability to excite the US area, thus
leading to the reflex response.

29. Information & Expectation:
• CS becomes a signal for the US
• When CS is presented the US is expected
producing a response.
• Thus in reality behavior , actions engaged by the
learner are in expectation of a future event

30. It is used by many dog trainers to help train
pets.
Eg: Teachers apply it in class by creating a
positive classroom environment to help
students overcome fear or anxiety. pairing an
anxiety provoking situation like performing
infront of a group , with pleasant surroundings
thus help the child to stay calm.
It can be used to increase or decrease certain
behaviours.

31. Repetition of Advertisements: increases
strength of Association between CS & US
Slows the process of forgetting
Many of our behaviors today are shaped
by the pairing of stimuli.
Eg remembering someone with the smell
or the perfume he or she uses.

32. Operant conditioning - the learning of
voluntary behavior through the effects of
pleasant and unpleasant consequences to
responses.
Key feature is a reinforcer/ reinforcement –
an environmental event that is the
consequence of an instrumental response
and that makes the response more likely to
occur again

33. Reinforcement - any event or stimulus, that when following a
response, increases the probability that the response will
occur again.
• Primary reinforcer - any reinforcer that is naturally
reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as
hunger, thirst, or touch.
• Secondary reinforcer - any reinforcer that becomes
reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such
as praise, tokens, or gold stars.
Types:
Positive reinforcer
Negative reinforcement
Punishment
Omission

34. Positive reinforcement - the reinforcement of
a response by the addition or experiencing of
a pleasurable stimulus.
Negative reinforcement - the reinforcement of
a response by the removal, escape from, or
avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus

35. Thorndikes contribution

36. Behaviorist; wanted to study only observable,
measurable behavior.
Gave “operant conditioning” its name.
• Operant - any behavior that is voluntary.
Learning depends on what happens after the
response — the consequence

37. Skinner’s box
- lever which activates the food
delivery system
- positive reinforcement is
contingent upon pressing the
lever
- at first, food pellets given for
a while
- press lever accidentally; food
released
- eventually presses the lever
more rapidly

38. 1)Shaping - the reinforcement of simple
steps in behavior that lead to a desired,
more complex behavior.
2)Extinction
takes place when the reinforcement for a
particular response is withdrawn.
Eg :old lady with dermatitis

39. 3)Conditioned positive reinforcers
a. Learned reinforcers : learner must have
experience with them for them to work.
b. Stimuli become conditioned reinforcers
by being paired with primary reinforcer.
c. Similar to pairing of US and CS.
d. Undergo extinction.

40. 4) Reinforcement schedules:
Continuous schedule:
Applying the reinforcement every time the behavior
occurs (getting a raise after every successful project or
getting spanked after every negative behavior) is
called a Continuous Schedule.
This is the best approach when using punishment.
Inconsistencies in the punishment of children often
results in confusion and resentment. A problem with
this schedule is that we are not always present when a
behavior occurs or may not be able to apply the
punishment.

41. Fixed Ratio. A fixed ratio schedule refers to
applying the reinforcement after a specific
number of responses or behaviour.
Fixed Interval. Applying the reinforcer after a
specific amount of time is referred to as a
fixed interval schedule.
The characteristic pattern of responses in
fixed interval type is that of a gradual
acceleration of responding during the interval
to produce what is known as the “fixed –
interval scallop”

42. Variable Ratio. This refers to applying a reinforcer
after a variable number of responses.
for example. Imagine walking into a casino and
heading for the slot machines. After the third coin
you put in, you get two back. Two more and you
get three back. Another five coins and you receive
two more back. And you find it extremely difficult to
stop playing.
Variable Interval. Reinforcing someone after a
variable amount of time is the final schedule.
If you have a boss who checks your work
periodically, you understand the power of this
schedule.

44.  Stimulus Generalization
• Skinner’s box
• Gradient of Generalization
 Discrimination
Positive reinforcement following the
stimulus-increases likelihood of
response
No reinforcement following the
stimulus decreases likelihood of
response.
Stimulus control of behaviour
• ‘Go – no – go’ discrimination

45. There are two main categories of behavior
under aversive control: avoidance behavior
and escape behavior.
Escape conditioning occurs when the
animal learns to perform an operant
to terminate an ongoing, aversive stimulus. It
is a "get me out of here" or "shut this off"
reaction, aimed at escape from pain or
annoyance. The behavior that produces
escape is negatively reinforced(reinforced by
the elimination of the unpleasant stimulus).
Eg :rat in a compartment.

46. Escape conditioning is converted into avoidance
conditioning by giving a signal before the
aversive stimulus starts. If the animal receives a
cue or signal that an aversive stimulus is coming,
then after one or two occurrences of the punishing
stimulus the cue will trigger an avoidance behavior.
This kind of learning occurs quickly and is very
durable. For example, if you sounded a buzzer
before you electrified the platform, after one or two
trials the rat would respond to the tone by jumping
into compartment B..It would not wait for the shock

47. This is a form of stimulus control, because it puts behavior
under control of a stimulus
Avoidance learning may also be learned because of safety
signals- the absence of the noxious stimulus like the shock in
the safe compartment of the box acts like a positive
reinforcement .
Avoidance behaviors are incredibly persistent. This is
true even when there is no longer anything to avoid.
As the animal is in a vicious circle: avoidance responses
results in safety signals that reinforce the tendency to make
more avoidance responses , which in turn produce more
safety signals and so on.

48. Stimulus or an event, which, when
its onset is contingent on a
response, decreases the likelihood
that the response will occur again
Different from negative
reinforcement
Effectiveness :
i. Intensity
ii. Consistency
iii. Contingent upon occurrence of
response
iv. Response tendency
v. Adaptation
vi. Concurrent reinforcement

49. Omission training
Positive reinforcement is withdrawn
following a response
Decreases the likelihood that the response
will be made again.

50. Not all cases of learning can easily be captured by
classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Learning would be extremely inefficient if we had
to rely completely on conditioning for all our
learning.
Human beings can learn efficiently by observation,
taking instruction, and imitating the behavior of
others.
Cognitive learning is defined as the acquisition of
knowledge and skill by mental or cognitive
processes — including creating mental
representations of physical objects and events,
and other forms of information processing.

51. It refers to processing information about
the environment that is received through
senses.
It involves 1)selection of information. 2)the
making of alterations. 3)forming
associations of information selected.
4)elaboration of information in thought
5)storage of information in memory and
6)retrieval of the information when required

52. Types of Cognitive Learning
Latent Learning
Insight Learning
Imitation

53. Latent learning:(Hidden) is the learning that
occurs but is not evident in behaviour until
later when conditions for its appearance are
favourable.
Ex:experimental rats allowed to live in and
experience a maze, and control rats allowed
to live in a plain box unlike the maze. so that
when the need arises. when reinforcement
provided to both the rats in the maze. The
experimental rats moved faster and with a
fewer errors than the control rats.

54. Insight learning: a typical insight situation , a problem
is posed, a period follows during which no progress is
made , and then suddenly the solution comes. Human
beings experience a good feeling!
Note that:1)solution comes suddenly after a period of
during which various response strategies are tried
2)involves perceptual rearrangement and 3)the
solution once you have it.
What has been learned can also be applied to other
similar situations,involving a great deal of
generalizations of insightful situations to similar
problems.

55. Imitations:
when we model our behavior on that of
someone else. Defined as a response that is
like the stimulus triggering the response.
Eg: chidren learning learning to say their first
words or do things that their parents do.

56.  Social learning theory posits that learning is a
cognitive process that takes place in a social context
and can occur purely through observation or direct
instruction, even in the absence of motor reproduction
or direct reinforcement

57.  Early Social Learning Theory
• Neil Miller and John Dollard
• Bridge the gap between dynamic and learning perspectives on
personality
 Late Social Learning Theory
• Albert Bandura and Walters
• Focus is on observational learning/imitation
• Vicarious reinforcement
• Bridge between behaviourist and cognitive learning theorie

58. Holistic Theory
- individual personality consists of several
elements all of which require activation if learning
is to be effective
Facilitation Theory
- learning will occur by the educator acting as a
facilitator
- Facilitative teacher and the learner
- changing one’s concept of oneself
Action learning
- action learning sets learning with and from each
other

59. Experiental Learning
- Kolb
- can begin at any stage
- continuous
- likelihood of developing one
mode of learning more than
the other
Adult Learning
- student centered
- experience based
- problem oriented
- collaborative

60. Watsons theory of behaviourism:
Stated that through conditioning a child
since birth one can create a desired adult .

61. Prepared behavior
Certain species are predisposed to learn some things
easily.
Unprepared behavior
Behavior that can be learned with a moderate amount
of difficulty.
Contraprepared behavior
Behavior which can be learned only with great
difficulty, if at all.

62. Based on
- Operant Conditioning
- Classical Conditioning
- Cognitive Learning

63. Parents, schools and other agents of
society may not deliberately, but do shape
our behavior with reinforcements in
society..
Instrumental or operant conditioning may
be used deliberately to shape desired
behaviours.

64. Programmed learning: the material to be
learned is broken down into small easy steps.
The leaner makes fewer errors , feels a sense
of accomplishment. This also minimizes the
frustration that might lower motivating and
result in a dislike for learning.
Reinforcement is contingent at each step .
The learner makes responses at his own
pace.
It is Effective in learning facts , rules ,
formulas.

65. Personalised system of instruction.: The
material in the course is divided into small
units , that have to be mastered before the
next unit is attempted.
For ex: students may have to attain a certain
grade before going to the next unit. They may
set their own pace and answer the
examination only after they are prepared.
Being allowed to go to the next level act as a
positive reinforcement. Also students on
mastering certain number of units may be
rewarded with a prize.

66. In business operations: use of positive
reinforcement in the form of praise and prize
can increase the employee productivity
,which reinforce the supervisors ,and the
bosses by greater profits.
Also having a role in changing the behavior of
a well adjusted person in eliminating bad
habits like smoking, taking care of health,
temper and developing greater self control.

67.  Omission training
- Time out from reinforcement
- withdrawal of the reinforcer
 Differential reinforcement
- giving positive reinforcement for desired
behaviour and withholding it in its absence
 Shaping
- sample of the desired behaviour
- reward successive approximations
- gradual nurturing of correct responses

68.  Token economies
- Tokens can be earned following appropriate behaviour and
exchanged for certain privileges
- Advantages
 Punishment
- may interfere with effective learning
- used as a last resort
 Covert sensitisation
- unwanted behaviour is imagined together with its imaginary
punishing consequences

69.  Systematic desensitization
- relaxation and pleasant feelings are learned as
conditioned responses to stimuli that once acted
as fear producers
- relaxation training essential prerequisite
- Reciprocal Inhibition- gradually pair the feared
stimulus with a relaxed body state
- Fear gradient / hierarchy
- duration of each session usually 15-30 mins
- Problems that may arise during the process
- Example : elimination of phobias (Mary Cover
Jones)

71.  Flooding
- Direct presentation of a fear producing stimulus either in
imagination or in reality
- risk : worsen the unwanted conditioned response
 Aversion Therapy
- involves the induction of feelings of fear/revulsion, specifically in
relation to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviour
- differs from punishment
- applicable in establishing impulse control
 Assertive training
- method of desensitization as well as means of developing more
effective coping techniques
- difficulties in interpersonal relationships

72.  Modeling
- based on observational learning
- necessary conditions for effective
modeling
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Motivation

73. Ellis’s Rational Emotive Therapy
- reveal and breakdown irrational beliefs that lead to
distress
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
- primarily for the treatment of depression
- root out depressed people’s faulty depressogenic
cognitions
Meichenbaum’s Self-instructional Training
- to help subjects replace their maladaptive cognitions
with rational positive thoughts

75. Morgan and kings textbook of psychology
Comprehensive textbook of psychiatry
kaplan and saddock.
Abnormal Psychology – Coleman
Educational psychology by Kundu and
Tattoo