World Energy

1. JAMES A. CRAIG
OMEGA 2011

2.  World Energy Production
 World Energy Consumption
 Types of Energy
 Biomass
 Hydropower
 Nuclear
 Renewable (Geothermal, Wind, Solar)
 Fossil
 Future Energy Use

3.  Energy production has steadily increased.
 According to US DOE
 215.4 quadrillion BTU in 1970.
 417.1 quadrillion BTU in 2003.
 Primary energy has increased by 94% from 1970 to 2003.

4. World primary energy production by source (1970 – 2003)
Source: US DOE (Annual Energy Review, 2004)

5. Top energy producing countries (2003)
Source: US DOE (Annual Energy Review, 2004)

6.  Energy consumption is directly related to quality of
life.
 Quality of life is quantified (by UN) using HDI
(Human Development Index).
 Factors considered in HDI include:
 Life expectancy
 Education
 GDP – output of goods & services (economic growth).

7. UN HDI versus annual energy consumed per capita (1999)
Sources: UN Human Development Report (2001) & US DOE (2002)

9. World primary energy consumption by region (1980 – 2003)
Source: US DOE (International Energy Annual, 2003)

10.  Types to consider:
 Biomass
 Hydropower
 Nuclear
 Renewable (Geothermal, Wind, Solar)
 Fossil

11.  Biomass (biological mass) refers to organic material
(e.g. plant, animal waste, wood, algae & seaweed, and
garbage).
 They are basically used for lighting, cooking, heating,
& making simple artefacts.
 Biomass can be converted to biofuel by
thermochemical conversion and biochemical
conversion.

12. Thermochemical Conversion
 Heating biomass in an oxygen-free or low-oxygen
atmosphere.
 Materials are transformed into simpler substances that
can be used as fuels.
 Examples include charcoal and methanol.
 Anaerobic digestion (in sewage treatment plants) is
used to generate methane gas.

13. Biochemical Conversion
 Uses enzymes, fungi, or other microorganisms.
 High-moisture biomass is converted into liquid or
gaseous fuels.
 Example includes using bacteria to convert manure,
agricultural wastes, paper, and algae into methane.
 Using yeast to decompose carbohydrates (e.g. corn and
sugar), yielding ethyl alcohol (ethanol). Ethanol can be
mixed with gasoline to create gasohol.

14.  Disadvantages of Biomass
 Deforestation from cutting down trees, which can in
turn leads to soil erosion and mudslides.
 Pollution of environment from burning of wood.

15.  Hydropower was originally used to turn waterwheels of
mills to grind grains.
 Dams (hydropower plants) are built to convert the
energy of flowing water into mechanical energy
(turning turbines) to create electricity.
 In 2006, the world’s largest dam (3 Gorges Dam) was
completed on the Yangtze River, China. Capacity is
84.7 billion kWh/year of electricity.
Size
Electricity Generating Capacity (MW)
Micro
< 0.1
Small
0.1 – 30
Large
> 30

18.  Advantage
 Low operating costs.
 Disadvantages
 Expensive to build
 Drought conditions can affect water supply
 Reliance on rain and melting snow
 Environmental concerns (ruined streams, dried up
waterfalls, and altered aquatic habitats).

19.  Nuclear energy can be obtained from 2 principal types
of reactions:
 Fission – splitting of 1 large nucleus into 2 smaller
nuclei.
 Fusion – joining of 2 small nuclei into 1 large nucleus.
 Nuclear reactors are designed primarily for electricity
generation.
 They also provide power for ships (submarines &
aircraft carriers) and serve as training & research
facilities .

20. Pressurized water reactor
Source: US DOE (DOE/EP0026, 1981)

22. The Palo Verde Nuclear Power Facility in Arizona, USA.

23. Core of the
reactor

24. Top 10 producers of electrical energy from nuclear energy (2000)
Source: US DOE (EIA website, 2002)

25. Dependence of nations on nuclear energy (2000)
Source: US DOE (EIA website, 2002)

26.  Advantages
 A long-term source of abundant energy
 Power plants do not produce greenhouse gases (CO2 and
methane).
 Disadvantages
 Waste disposal: end products of nuclear fission are
highly radioactive and have half-life in thousands of
years.
 Nuclear plants can contaminate air, water, the ground,
and the biosphere.

27.  Renewable energy is naturally regenerated.
 Sources include:
 Geothermal – heat of the earth.
 Wind
 Solar – the sun
 Sometimes, hydropower and biomass are included in
this category.

28.  Geothermal energy is the natural, internal heat of
Earth trapped in rock formations deep underground.
 Only a fraction of it can be extracted.
 Examples are hot springs, geysers, and fumaroles.
 Hot water or steam from these sources are used for
heating buildings and processing food.

29.  Pressurized hot water or steam can be directed toward
turbines for electricity generation.
 Geothermal energy is usable only when it is
concentrated in one spot (thermal reservoir).
 There are 4 types of reservoirs:
 Hydrothermal reservoirs
 Dry rock reservoirs
 Geopressurized reservoirs
 Magma

31. Hydrothermal Reservoirs
 Underground pools of hot water covered by a
permeable formation through which steam
escapes.
 At the surface, the steam is purified and piped
directly to electrical generating station.
 Cheapest and simplest form of geothermal energy.
Dry Rock
 Most common geothermal sources.
 Typical more than 6,000 ft below the surface.
 Water is injected into hot rock formations and the
resulting steam or water is collected.

32. Geopressurized Reservoirs
 They contain hot water & methane gas.
 Supplies of geopressurized energy remain
uncertain.
 Drilling is expensive.
Magma
 Molten or partially liquefied rock.
 Found from 10,000 ft – 30,000 ft below the surface.
 Temperature ranges from 900 oC – 1,205 oC.
 Extraction is still in the experimental stages.

33.  Disadvantages
 Geothermal plants are not efficient.
 They must be built near a geothermal source, so
accessibility to consumers is a challenge.
 Noise pollution.
 Harmful pollutants may be released: NH3, H2S, arsenic,
boron, & radon.
 Collapse of the land & water shortages due to massive
water withdrawal.

34.  Historical applications include sailing and driving
windmills.
 Early windmills were used to pump water and grind
grain in mills.
 When “harvested” by turbines, wind can be used to
generate electricity.
 A wind farm (or park) is a collection of wind turbines.
The areal extent of the farm depends on the radius of
the rotor blades.

36.  Advantages
 Clean energy. No emission of greenhouse gases.
 Disadvantages
 Rotating blades can kill birds, interfering with migration
patterns of birds.
 Noise pollution.

37. A wind farm in Albany

38.  The luminosity of sun ≈ 3.8 x 1026 W.
 Radiation from sun is comparable to the radiation
emitted by a black body at 6,000 oK.
 Solar constant (≈ 1,370 W/m2) is the amount of
radiation from the sun that reaches the earth’s
atmosphere.
 In the atmosphere, solar radiation can be absorbed or
scattered away from the earth’s surface by atmospheric
particles (air, water vapour, dust particles, and
aerosols).

40. Passive solar
 Building design with environmental factors that enable
the capture or exclusion of solar energy.
 Mechanical devices are not used in applications.
 Examples are roof overhang & thermal insulation.

41. Roof overhang
L
S
W

tan  S tan W
Thermal insulation
H wall
Thigh  Tlow 
Twall
 kwall A
 kwall A
hwall
hwall

42. Active solar
 Building design & construction of systems that collect
and convert solar energy into other forms of energy
(heat & electrical energy).
 Mechanical devices are used in applications.
 Examples are solar heat collector & solar power plant.

43. Solar heat collector

44. Solar power plant

46.  Fossils are dead, decayed, & transformed organisms
(plants & animals).
 Fossil energy comes from the combustion of fossil
fuels.
 Fossil fuels include:
 Coal
 Hydrocarbon (crude oil & natural gas)
 Fuel fuels are still the primary fuels for generating
power.

47. Fossils

48.  Coal is a black, combustible, mineral solid.
 Coal is formed from organic debris by coalification




process.
It developed over millions of years in an airless space
under increased temperature & pressure.
Organisms that form coal include: algae, zooplankton,
phytoplankton, bacteria decay of plants, & animals.
Coal is used as a fuel and in the production of coal gas,
water gas, coal-tar compounds, & coke.
There are 4 types of coal: anthracite, bituminous, subbituminous, & lignite.

49. Anthracite
 Hard coal & jet-black. Highest ranked.
 Moisture content < 15%
 Heating value ≈ 22 million – 28 million BTU/ton.
 Used for electricity generation & space heating.
Bituminous
 Soft coal, dense & black.
 Moisture content < 20%
 Heating value ≈ 19 million – 30 million BTU/ton.
 Used for electricity generation, space heating, & coke
production.

50. Sub-bituminous
 Dull black. Also known as black lignite.
 Moisture content = 20% – 30%
 Heating value ≈ 16 million – 24 million BTU/ton.
 Used for electricity generation & space heating.
Lignite
 Brownish-black. Lowest ranked.
 Moisture content high
 Heating value ≈ 9 million – 17 million BTU/ton.
 Used for electricity generation.

51. Coal Mining
 The method used depends on the terrain & the depth
of the coal. There are 2 methods:
 Underground Mining – coal depth > 200 ft below
surface. Some coal must be left untouched to form
pillars that prevent the mines from caving in. Popular
till early 1970s.
 Surface Mining – coal depth < 200 ft. There 2 types:
area surface mining & contour surface mining.
 Coal is transported to consumers by ground
transportation, especially by trains.

52. Shaft mine (underground)

53. Slope mine (underground)

54. Drift mine (underground)

55. Area surface mine (surface)

56. Contour mine (surface)

57. Top coal producing countries (2003)
Top coal consuming countries (2003)

58.  Hydrocarbons are organic compounds, composed
entirely of carbon and hydrogen.
 They may also contain impurities like sulphur,
nitrogen, oxygen, & metals.
 Another name for hydrocarbon is petroleum.
Element
Carbon
Composition (% by mass)
84 – 87%
Hydrogen
11 – 14%
Sulphur
0.6 – 8%
Nitrogen
0.02 – 1.7%
Oxygen
0.08 – 1.8%
Metals
0 – 0.14%

59. Phases of Hydrocarbon
 Gas – natural gas (free or associated)
 Liquid – crude oil
 Solid – tar sand, asphalt, pitch blend, waxy crude
Components (%)
Phase
Carbon
Hydrogen
Sulphur
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Gas
65 – 80
1 – 25
Traces
1 – 15
--
Liquid
82 – 87
11 – 15
0.1 – 6
0.1 – 1.5
0.1 – 4.5
Solid
80 – 85
8 – 11
2–8
0–2
--

60. Content (% in Volume)
Constituents
Wet
Dry
Hydrocarbons
Methane
84.6
96
Ethane
6.4
2
Propane
5.3
0.6
i-Butane
1.2
0.18
n-Butane
1.4
0.12
i-Pentane
0.4
0.14
n-Pentane
0.2
0.06
Hexanes
0.4
0.01
Heptanes
0.1
0.08
Non-Hydrocarbons
Carbon Dioxide
0.5
Helium
0.05
Hydrogen Sulphide
0.5
Nitrogen
0.1
Argon
0.005
Radon, Krypton, Xenon
Traces
Composition of
typical natural
gas

61. Classes of Hydrocarbon
 Paraffins
 Saturated hydrocarbons
 CnH2n+2
 Examples are methane (CH4) & ethane (C2H6).
 Naphthenes
 Saturated hydrocarbons with a ring structure.
 CnH2n
 Example is cyclopentane (C5H10).
 Aromatic
 Unsaturated hydrocarbons with one or more carbon rings.
 Example is benzene (C6H6).

62. Major Impurities & Their Sources
 H2 – volcanic activity releases & radioactivity.
 N2 – atmospheric; carried by run of water.
 CO2 – since hydrocarbon is a covalent bond, ions
released can combine to form CO2.
 H2S – free sulphur plus hydrogen.
 He – radioactivity from volcanic activity.
 S – free sulphur.

63. Effects of Major Impurities
 H2 – reduces gas combustibility. Forms water.
 N2 – affects Energy output per unit volume.
 CO2 – negligible effect.
 H2S – causes bronchi constriction.
 He – negligible effect.
 S – causes coking & plugging, increases power
consumption in refinery cost, reduces crude oil value.

64. Fluid Classifications
Phase
No surface liquids
Wet gas
> 100,000
Condensate
3,000 – 100,000
Volatile oil
1,500 – 3,000
Black oil
100 – 1,500
Heavy oil
Liquid
Separator GOR (SCF/STB)
Dry gas
Gas
Fluid Type
0
 Also, natural gas can be classified by quality:
 Sweet gas – little or no H2S present in the gas.
 Sour gas – appreciable amount of H2S present in the gas.

65. Density of Crude Oil
O
API 
141.5
 131.5
S .G.@60 o F
O
Baume 
140
 130
S .G.@60 o F
 Degree API is widely used.
 10 – 20 oAPI ► Heavy crude.
 20 – 30 oAPI ► Medium crude.
 30 – 40 oAPI ► Light crude.
 > 40 oAPI ► Very light crude and condensate

66. Density of Gas (Gas Specific Gravity)
M a  gas  M a  gas 
g 

M a  air 
29
 Ma = apparent molecular weight.
Nc
M a   yi M i
i 1
 Nc = number of components
 yi = mole fraction of component i
 Mi = molecular weight of component i

67. Uses of Hydrocarbons
 Energy – to run internal combustion (IC) engines.
 IC engines are found in
automobiles, ships, tractors, generators, & armoured
tanks.
 Raw materials – used as raw materials in
manufacturing of many products.

68. Cooking gas
Gasoline
Refinery
Jet fuel
Kerosene
Diesel
Others
Solvent for paints
Crude oil
Insecticides
Enamel, Medicines
Synthetic fibers
Detergents
Petrochemical
plant
Weed killers & fertilizers
Cosmetics, Plastics
Synthetic rubber
Polish, Roofing
Protective paints
Photographic films

69. World crude oil production, OPEC, MMBbl/day (1960 – 2004)

70. World crude oil production, non-OPEC, MMBbl/day (1960 – 2004)

71. Top crude oil-producing countries (2004)

72. World petroleum consumption, OECD (2003)

73. World oil reserves. Source: Oil & Gas Journal

74. Middle East – 57% of World oil reserves

75. North America – 18% of World oil reserves

76. Central & South America – 8% of World oil reserves

77. Eastern Europe & Former USSR – 7% of World oil reserves

78. Africa – 6% of World oil reserves

79. Asia & Oceania – 3% of World oil reserves

80. Western Europe – 1% of World oil reserves

81.  Disadvantages of fossil energy
 Non-renewable – limited.
 Pollution – emission (carbon based) from burning fossil
fuel reacts with oxygen & nitrogen in the atmosphere to
form Greenhouse gases (CO2, CO, NOx), leading to
Global warming.
 These gases trap the solar energy reflected by the earth’s
surface and reradiate the energy in the form of infrared
radiation.
 Carbon sequestration is a means of capturing &
storing greenhouse gases in geologic formations.

82. The carbon cycle

83.  Today’s Energy
 85.5 percent → fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal)
 14.5 percent → nuclear and all other sources
 By 2025
 87 percent → fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal)
 13 percent → nuclear and all other sources