Dissertation

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THE ROLE OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL COUNSELOR
IN MALAYSIA AS PERCEIVED BY ADMINISTRATORS,
COUNSELORS, AND TEACHERS: TOWARD ROLE
DEFINITION
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree
ofDoctor ofPhilosophy in the Graduate School of
The Ohio State University
By
Ching Mey See, B.A., Dip.Ed., M.Ed.
* * * * *
The Ohio State University
1996
Dissertation Committee
Dr. Susan Sears
Dr. Robert Warmbrod
Dr. Linda Perosa
Approved by
Advis
College ofEducation
Department of Educational
Services and Research
Reproduced with perm ission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without perm ission.

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Copyright by
Ching Mey See
1996

Dedicated to my mother, Tay Siew King.
ii

ACK N O W LEDG M EN TS
I am grateful to the many people who have made this endeavor possible. I
am immensely grateful to Dr. Susan Sears, who is most instrumental to the
completion ofthis study.
I am truly indebted to my dissertation committee, Dr. Susan Sears, Dr.
Robert Warmbrod, and Dr. Linda Perosa. Their generous contribution of time,
constant support, and insightful ideas and recommendations are very helpful and
fruitful. A very special thanks to Dr. James V. Wigtil, for his understanding,
support, and guidance throughout my graduate years. In addition, I would like to
thank Mr. Lim Eng Chye for his encouragement, valuable advice, and help during
the process of my academic pursuits.
I am grateful to the secondary school principals, counselors, and teachers
in Malaysia who have participated in this study. My particular appreciation is
extended to many friends who contributed their time and knowledge in editing and
translating the instrument for this study.
I am always grateful to my mother, Madam Tay Siew King, who is my
constant source of inspiration. Also to my brothers and sisters who are always
there for me and for their unfailing support. My heartfelt appreciation to Ted and
Helen Pestel for taking me into their wings and being my U.S. parents.
1U
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VITA
October 7,1956 .......................................... Bom Segamat, Johor, Malaysia
June, 1980 .................................................... B.A., University ofMalaya, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
June, 1981 .................................................... Diploma In Education, University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
1981 - 1985 ................................................. Teacher, Canossian Convent,
Segamat, Johor, Malaysia
1984 - 1988 ................................................. M.Ed., Educational Psychology,
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur,
Malaysia
1986 - 1987 ................................................. Lecturer, Sultan Idris Teachers
Training College, Perak, Malaysia
1987- 1988 ................................................. Lecturer, Language Institute, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia
1988-Present ............................................. Lecturer, College of Education,
University Science Malaysia, Penang,
Malaysia
FIELDS OF STUDY
Major Field: Educational Services and Research
Area of Specialty: Counselor Education
Cognate: Special Education
iv

TABLE OF CO NTENTS
DEDICATION ................................................................................................ i i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i i i
VITA i v
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................ v i i i
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................................... x i v
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION.................................................................. 1
Background and Setting......................................................... 1
Statement ofthe Problem ...................................................... 5
Significance ofthe Problem .................................................. 9
Purpose ofthe Study ............................................................. 11
Research Questions ................................................................ 12
Definition of Terms ................................................................ 14
Limitations of the Study ........................................................ 16
Summary ................................................................................. 16
H. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................................ 18
Development of Secondary School Guidance
and Counseling Movement in the United States
of America .......................................................................... 18
Development of Secondary School Guidance
and Counseling Movement in Malaysia ............................. 33
Guidance and Counseling Services in the
Secondary School .............................................................. 41
The Role ofthe Secondary School Counselor .................... 61
v

Perceptions ofthe Role of the Secondary
School Counselor .............................................................. 71
Summary ................................................................................ 78
IE. METHODOLOGY.................................................................. 80
Research Setting .................................................................... 80
Population .............................................................................. 82
Sampling Procedure .............................................................. 84
Research Design .................................................................... 87
Instrumentation ...................................................................... 87
Data Collection ...................................................................... 91
Statistical Analysis ................................................................. 92
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION............................................ 94
Description and Reliability ofthe Instrument ...................... 94
Demographic Description ..................................................... 100
Discussion ofFindings .......................................................... 109
Summaiy ................................................................................ 152
V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS........................................................ 159
Summary ................................................................................ 159
Findings .................................................................................. 163
Conclusions ........................................................................... 169
Recommendations .................................................................. 173
Implications.............................................................................. 174
LIST OF REFERENCES .................................................................. 177
APPENDIXES
A. A Map of Peninsular Malaysia........................................ 199
B. Approval Letters............................................................. 201
C. Introductory Letter to Sampled Schools....................... 208
D. CRAS............................................................................... 215
vi

E. Means and Standard Deviations of the
Actual Role and Importance of the School
Counselor Role as Perceived by
Adminstrators, Counselors, and Teachers...................... 245
F. Summary Tables Presenting the Overall
Analysis for the Factorial ANOVAs................................ 261

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
1. Highlights of the Evolution ofthe Secondary School
Guidance and Counseling Movement in the United States.......... 32
2. Highlights ofthe Evolution of the Secondary School
Guidance and Counseling Movement in Malaysia........................ 40
3. Number of General Secondary Schools in
Malaysia by State............................................................................. 82
4. Number of Administrators, School Counselors, and
Teachers in the General Secondary Schools in
Peninsular Malaysia......................................................................... 83
5. Number ofUrban and Rural Schools in Johor,
Selangor, Terengganu, and Penang................................................ 85
6. Population (N) and Sample Size (n) of the Study.......................... 86
7. Reliability Estimates for the Frequency and Importance
Subscales ofthe CRAS for the Pilot-Test..................................... 90
Subscales ofthe CRAS for the Study............................................ 96
Subscales ofthe CRAS for the Administrators.............................. 98
Subscales ofthe CRAS for the Counselors................................... 99
viii

PAG E
Subscales ofthe CRAS for the Teachers...................................... 100
12. Number of Schools and Sample Size by State and
Location........................................................................................... 101
13. Title by Administrators................................................................... 102
14. Title by Counselors.......................................................................... 103
15. Title by Teachers............................................................................. 103
16. Gender by Administrators, Counselors, and Teachers.................. 104
17. Self-Reported Age of Administrators, Counselors,
and Teachers.................................................................................... 105
18. Self-Reported Years of Teaching Experience of
Administrators, Counselors, and Teachers.................................... 106
19 Views of Administrators, Counselors, and Teachers on the
Importance of the Role of School Counselor................................ 107
20. Self-Reported Professional Qualification of Counselors................ 108
21. Views of Counselors as to Whether They were Provided
with Information on the Role of School Counselor in Their
Training............................................................................................ 109
22. Means and Standard Deviations of Six CRAS Subscales
for Administrators' Perceptions on Actual School
Counselor Role................................................................................ I ll
for Counselors' Perceptions on Actual School
Counselor Role................................................................................ 112
for Teachers' Perceptions on Actual School
Counselor Role................................................................................ 113
ix

PA G E
for Administrators' Perceptions on Importance of
School Counselor Role................................................................... 115
for Counselors' Perceptions on Importance of School
Counselor Role................................................................................ 116
for Teachers’Perceptions on Importance of School
Counselor Role..................................................... 117
28. Comparison of Administrators' Perceptions on the Actual
Role and Importance of the Role on the Six Subscales
of CRAS........................................................................................... 118
29. Comparison of Counselors' Perceptions on the Actual
of CRAS........................................................................................... 119
30. Comparison of Teachers' Perceptions on the Actual
of CRAS........................................................................................... 120
31 Summary Data and Analysis of Variance: Perceptions
of Administrators, Counselors, and Teachers on the
Individual and Group Counseling Subscale of
the CRAS......................................................................................... 122
32. Summary Data and Analysis of Variance: Perceptions
Developmental, Educational, and Career Guidance
Subscale ofthe CRAS..................................................................... 123
Assessment and Appraisal Subscaleofthe CRAS........................ 124
Consulting Subscale of the CRAS............................................... 125
x

PAG E
Coordination and Management Subscale of
the CRAS......................................................................................... 126
Professional Ethics, Personal Growth, and
Development Subscale of the CRAS............................................. 127
Importance of Individual and Group Counseling
Subscale of the CRAS.................................................................... 129
38 Summary Data and Analysis of Variance: Perceptions
Importance of Developmental, Educational, and
Career Guidance Subscale of the CRAS...................................... 130
Importance of Assessment and Appraisal Subscale
of the CRAS................................................................................... 131
Importance of Consulting Subscale ofthe CRAS........................ 132
Importance of Coordination and Management
Importance of Professional Ethics, Personal Growth,
and Development Subscale ofthe CRAS..................................... 134
xi

PA G E
43.Factorial ANOVA of Administrators' Perceptions of the
School Counselor Role by State and Location for the
Consulting Subscale of the CRAS................................................ 136
44. Factorial ANOVA of Teachers' Perceptions ofthe
Developmental, Educational, and Career Guidance
45. Factorial ANOVA of Teachers' Perceptions of the
Importance ofDevelopmental, Educational, and Career
Guidance Subscale of the CRAS.................................................. 139
46. Factorial ANOVA of Administrators' Perceptions of the
School Counselor Role by Gender and Years of Teaching
Experience for the Importance of Professional Ethics,
Personal Growth, and Development Subscale of the
CRAS.............................................................................................. 141
School Counselor Role by Gender and Years of
Teaching Experience for the Developmental,
Educational, and Career Guidance Subscale of
the CRAS........................................................................................ 142
Teaching Experience for the Assessment and
Appraisal Subscale ofthe CRAS.................................................. 143
Teaching Experience for the Importance of Consulting
Teaching Experience for the Importance of Coordination
and Management Subscale of the CRAS...................................... 145
xii

PA G E
School Counselor Role by Gender and Age Group for
the Developmental, Educational, and Career Guidance
the Assessment and Appraisal Subscale of the CRAS.................. 148
the Importance ofDevelopmental, Educational and
Career Guidance Subscale of the CRAS........................................ 149
the Importance of Coordination and Management
Subscale of the CRAS..................................................................... 150
the Importance of Assessment and Appraisal Subscale
ofthe CRAS..................................................................................... 151
the Importance of Consulting Subscale of the CRAS................... 152

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE PAGE
1. Typical Organizational Structure for Guidance and Counseling
Unit in Secondary Schools......................................................................... 4
2. Graphic Representation of Interaction Between State and
Location for Administrators' Perceptions of the School
Counselor Role in the Consulting Subscale.............................................. 137
xiv

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
This study explored the perceptions of secondary school administrators,
counselors, and teachers in Peninsular Malaysia regarding the actual role ofthe
school counselor and the importance ofthe role in meeting the needs of the
students. The data were collected with a role assessment questionnaire developed
by the researcher.
This chapter presents the background and setting, statement of problem,
significance of problem, purpose of study, research questions, definition ofterms,
and limitations of the study.
Background and Setting
Guidance and counseling in Malaysia began in the schools. It was only in
the 1980s that guidance and counseling services became an important part of all
the secondary schools in Malaysia. A guidance and counseling unit was formed
under the Schools Division in the Ministry ofEducation and a book entitled
"Panduan Perlaksanaan Khidmat Bimbingan dan Kaunseling di Sekolah"
(Guidelines for the Implementation of Guidance and Counseling Services in the
School) was published in 1984 to provide guidelines for counselors to plan,
organize, and run the guidance and counseling program in the secondary schools.
The general objectives ofthe guidance and counseling program put
forward by the Ministry ofEducation are:
l
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1. To provide growth and enrichment services by giving the students
opportunities, facilities, and experiences relevant to their abilities and potentials.
The services encompass all aspects of personal development.
2. To provide preventive services such as awareness campaigns and
preventive education to educate students to avoid activities such as wrong acts,
drug abuse, and others.
3. To provide remedial/corrective services or orientation for students with
personal, learning, career, social problems, and others.
4. To provide crisis counseling for students who need it.
The Ministry of Education also recommends the content of the program.
There are basically nine guidance and counseling services:
1. Personal inventory and record service: To collect, keep, evaluate, use,
and share information about individuals.
2. Information service: To give information on education, training,
career, personal, and social matters.
3. Group guidance and instructional service: To provide developmental
guidance through planned and organized activities.
4. Individual and group counseling: To provide instructional, personal,
and crisis counseling.
5. Placement service: To assist in educational placement, such as helping
students choose elective subjects and co-curricular activities.
6. Consultation and referral service: To provide consultation to
administrators, parents, and teachers. Also to make referrals to other professionals
when the needs arise.
7. Resource coordination service: To coordinate the resources and
activities of students and the community.

8. Conference with parents service: To provide opportunities for
parents/guardians to discuss career, personal, social, and educational development
of their children with the guidance and counseling teacher.
9. Evaluation service: To evaluate the effectiveness of the activities and
services of guidance and counseling. (Translated text from Panduan perlaksanaan
khidmat bimbingan dan kaunseling di sekolah, 1993; 1984).
There are no guidelines for the organizational structure ofthe guidance and
counseling unit in the secondary schools. However, Figure 1 presents a typical
organizational structure for guidance and counseling units found in some
secondary schools in Malaysia.

4
Guidance
Division
Counseling
Division
Publication
Board
Library Seminars V isitations Inform ation Guidance
Room
Participating Agents:
a. School counselor
b. Teachers
♦Career Club
c. Treasurer
d. Six Committee
Members for
Six Sections
a. Chairman
b. Secretary
* The members of the Career Club are students of forms 4 and 5 (high school)
Figure 1. Typical organizational structure for guidance and counseling unit in
secondary schools

The content of school counseling program includes the three components
of guidance, career club, and counseling. The person in charge of school
counseling is appointed by the principal to run this unit. In the 1960s, he/she was
called the guidance teacher or the guidance and counseling teacher. In the recent
years, he/she is called the school counselor. All the school counselors are given a
list of suggested services they should provide to the school community but their
duties/functions are not specified.
School counselors are primarily teachers, and the guidance and counseling
services that they perform are in addition to their teaching responsibilities. In
short, they play the dual role of teacher and counselor in the schools. Although
the objectives and content of the guidance and counseling services are specified,
the role ofthe secondary school counselor has yet to be defined clearly. There is
certainly a need to define the role of school counselors in Malaysia so that the
profession is given its due recognition. This study follows the beliefthat the basic
ingredient necessary for the survival ofany profession is a consensus of members
concerning the role and professional education (Schmidt, 1984).
Statement of the Problem
Secondary school counselors in Malaysia are faced with many barriers that
inhibit their performance. Some of the barriers are: the dual role of teacher-
counselor which results in heavy workload and conflict of duties; lack of a clear
definition ofthe role ofthe counselors; lack of professional identity and status;
inadequate professional training; inadequate budget and facilities; lack of
administrative support from principals; an attitude bias ofteachers against
counselors; and the misconception of students that they are dysfunctional when
they seek out the counselor (Nahrawi, 1983). Generally, it is the issue on the

ambiguity concerning the role of the secondary school counselor that relates to and
influences most of these obstacles. Williams (1993) stated that role ambiguity
contributes to role confusion and a lack of clarity about the field of school
counseling. Other studies have shown that problems with role ambiguity result in
communication difficulties, lack of administrative support from principals, lack of
recognition and cooperation from teachers, stress (Falvey, 1987; Holt, 1982), and
institutional disharmony (Wittmer & Loesch, 1975).
In addition, it is generally agreed that incorrect definition of the school
counselor's professional role by administrators, teachers, counselors, students, and
others could result in role ambiguity, lack of organizational commitment and
decline injob satisfaction on the part ofthe counselors (Harris, 1986; Moracco,
Butcke, & McEwen, 1984). Podemski and Childers (1980) noted that incorrect
perceptions of the counselor's professional role as an unresolved issue will
negatively affect the school counselor's effectiveness.
An accurate perception of the school counselor's professional role is
essential to maintain the counselor's professional identity and professional stability
(Lewis, 1978). A clear perception and a proper definition of the role of the school
counselor is not only necessary for the professional identity of counselors and for
counselor training programs (Mason, Arnold, & Hyman, 1975), but also helpful to
the counselors in adequately performing that role (Podemski & Childers, 1982).
Hutchinson, Barrick, and Groves (1986) indicated that a consistent, clearly defined
counselor role is essential for a sound counseling profession. Accountability issues
can be dealt with when there is clarification of the counselor's role (Hutchinson,
Barrick, & Groves, 1986; Hutchinson & Bottoroff, 1986; Ibrahim, Helms, &
Thompson, 1983). In addition, if school counselors are to be perceived as
effective professional counselors, they must clearly define for themselves the

professional role they will perform in the school (Terrill, 1990; Remley & Albright,
1988). Therefore, Wilgus & Shelley (1988) encouraged counselors to document
their functions, to create visible and well-defined roles, and to carefully evaluate
those roles. The ultimate aim of this study is to propose a clear role definition for
the school counselors in Malaysia.
Drury (1984) noted that the survival of counseling programs within the
schools is threatened when the school counselor's professional role and the
importance of the role are incorrectly perceived by important groups within the
school and community. Herr (1986) mentioned that the existence of counseling
positions within the schools will be determined by the importance attached to the
counselor's professional role by school district personnel. From an organizational
point of view, forces such as the principals, teachers, and counselors themselves
work together to determine the counselor's role. Carson (1971) indicated that the
counselor's role was largely determined by his/her publics, and the counselor's
perceptions of his/her publics' expectations. Therefore, administrators, counselors,
and teachers need to communicate adequately regarding how the counselor can
make a contribution to the school. The reason for the present study is to explore
the perceptions of these three groups of personnel in the school setting on whether
the counselor performed the role and if the role meet the needs ofthe students.
The information gathered would help the counselors plan and work more
effectively in the school community.
In Malaysia, the guidance programs have been in the secondary schools
since 1963, and a more comprehensive and systematic guidance and counseling
program has gained momentum in the 1980s. Although the Ministry of Education
has proposed the services that school counselors should provide in the schools, the
role description of the counselor has yet to be laid out. In this study, the role of

the school counselor is defined as a sum total of the functions/duties performed by
the counselor. The actual role refers to how often the counselor performed the
role. The present study was conducted to determine the administrators',
counselors', and teachers' perceptions of the actual role ofthe school counselor
and the importance ofthe role in meeting the needs of the students. The need for
this study emerged from the concern that if the school counselor's professional role
is not accurately perceived by school administrators, teachers and counselors
themselves, the counselors' positions in the schools are endangered.
Administrators' Perceptions. The role of school counselors vary widely
from school to school. The exact role of the counselor in a particular school is
frequently determined for the most part by the administrators. The administrators,
who are generally principals of the schools are instrumental in formulating both the
philosophy and goals of their schools. Salmon (1985) stated that the counselor's
role is assigned by the principal which reflect his/her goals and administrative
orientation. It is the perception of the administrators which establishes the
guidance and counseling functions carried out by the school counselor. Thus,
currently the success or failure of the guidance and counseling program in any
school depends to a large extent upon the administrators. No matter how great the
need, no matter how desirable the program, it cannot function effectively without
the full consent and cooperation ofthe administrators (Wrenn, 1979). Because the
administrators have this important influence and responsibility upon the role of the
secondary counselor, their perception of the counselor's role is of paramount
importance. The best guidance and counseling program seems to be a result of
collaboration efforts between principals and guidance staffmembers/counselors
(Tindall & Sklare-Lancaster, 1981).

Counselors' Perceptions. Goodlad (1983) noted that if counselors do not
understand what they are doing, their chances of doing their work poorly are
greatly intensified. Therefore the counselors' perception of their role is important.
Accurate perceptions regarding the importance of the school counselor's
professional role results in counselors articulating and performing their role
effectively (Remley and Albright, 1988; Wilson, 1985). Drury (1984) restated that
accurate perceptions ofthe importance of the counselor's professional role would
be enhanced among community members and school personnel if counselors
articulated the importance of their role. He believed this would enable community
members and school personnel to recognize the need to secure counseling
positions in schools and to recognize the benefits of the counselor's professional
role for students, parents, teachers, and administrators.
Teachers’ Perceptions. There is also a need to examine the teachers'
perceptions of the school counselor's professional role (Wilgus & Shelly, 1988;
Olson, 1983; Valine, Higgins, & Hatcher, 1982). Valine et al. (1982) noted that
greater understanding ofthe counselor's professional role by teachers will enhance
the teacher's ability to effectively evaluate the role of the counselor. Furthermore,
Quinn (1969) noted that the teachers' understanding of the counselor's role would
promote a cooperative and professional working relationship between counselors
and teachers.
Significance of the Problem
The study ofthe role ofthe secondary school counselor as perceived by
administrators, counselors, and teachers in Peninsular Malaysia is significant
because:
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1. It would enhance greater degree of awareness and understanding
among the educators regarding the professional role ofthe school counselor.
2. The study contributes to understanding and determining the role
functions school counselors are performing at present and the perceived
importance of the role functions in meeting the needs of the students.
3. The knowledge ofthe role of the secondary counselor may ultimately
lead to the improvement ofthe guidance and counseling program in the schools.
Most important, however, is the fact that when the counselor is aware ofwhat
exactly is expected of him/her, he/she functions more effectively. Sarbin points out
"a person cannot enact a role for which he lacks the necessary role expectations,
and he must move cautiously and uncertainly when the role expectations of others
are partly or entirely unknown" (cited in Gardner, 1954, pp. 226-227).
4. The findings can provide a new identity for this group of helping
professionals in the secondary schools. The role definition will provide the
counselors with a clear description of duties that may result in building a group of
professionals who are responsible and accountable for their helping services. By
achieving professionalism, there is potential for the position of school counselor to
become a full-timejob.
5. The findings can lead to the development of guidelines for teachers
training colleges and universities to plan training programs for school counselors.
Counselor educators will then be able to provide a more realistic model of the
guidance and counseling functions that should be practiced in the secondary
schools.
6. The findings can lead to the development ofguidelines for both
teachers training colleges and universities to plan the in-service program for

11
functioning school counselors to ensure that effective guidance and counseling
services are provided.
7. The findings can lead to the development of guidelines for the
government to review and revise the guidance and counseling program in the
schools and also the job description/position of the counselor in the schools.
Purpose ofthe Study
The purposes ofthis study have been identified as follows:
1. To describe the administrators', counselors', and teachers' perceptions
of the actual role ofthe secondary school counselor.
2. To describe the administrators', counselors', and teachers' perceptions
of the importance of the role ofthe secondary school counselor in meeting
students' needs.
3. To determine what differences exist among the administrators',
counselors', and teachers' perceptions ofthe actual role and importance of the role
ofthe secondary school counselor.
4. To determine what differences exist between the administrators',
counselors', and teachers' perceptions ofthe actual role of the secondary school
counselor.
5. To determine what differences exist between the administrators',
counselors', and teachers' perceptions of the importance of the role ofthe
secondary school counselor in meeting students' needs.
6. To identify how state and location, gender and years of teaching
experience, and gender and age are associated with the differences that exist
among the administrators, counselors, and teachers in their perceptions ofthe
actual role and importance ofthe role of the secondary school counselor.

7. To define the role of the secondary school counselor.
12
Research Questions
The research questions developed for this study include:
1. What is the actual role of the secondaiy school counselor as perceived
by the administrators on each ofthe subscales of the Counselor Role Assessment
Survey (CRAS)?
2. What is the actual role of the secondary school counselor as perceived
by the counselors on each of the subscales of the CRAS?
3. What is the actual role of the secondary school counselor as perceived
by the teachers on each of the subscales of the CRAS?
4. What aspects ofthe secondary school counselor's role are perceived by
administrators to be the most and the least important on each of the subscales of
the CRAS?
5. What aspects ofthe secondary school counselor's role are perceived by
counselors to be the most and the least important on each ofthe subscales of the
CRAS?
6. What aspects of the secondary school counselor's role are perceived by
teachers to be the most and the least important on each of the subscales of the
CRAS?
7. Is there a difference among the administrators' perceptions of the
actual role and importance of the role of the secondary school counselor on each
subscale of the CRAS?
8. Is there a difference among the counselors' perceptions of the actual
role and importance ofthe role of the secondaiy school counselor on each subscale
ofthe CRAS?

9. Is there a difference among the teachers' perceptions of the actual role
and importance ofthe role of the secondaiy school counselor on each subscale of
the CRAS?
10. Is there a difference between the administrators’, counselors', and
teachers' perceptions regarding the actual role of the secondary school counselor
on each subscale ofthe CRAS?
11. Is there a difference between the administrators', counselors', and
teachers' perceptions regarding the importance of the role of the secondary school
counselor on each subscale of the CRAS?
12. Is there a difference among the administrators from different state and
school location regarding their perceptions of the actual role and importance of the
role ofthe secondary school counselor on each subscale of the CRAS?
13. Is there a difference among the counselors from different state and
school location regarding their perceptions of the actual role and importance of the
role ofthe secondaiy school counselor on each subscale of the CRAS?
14. Is there a difference among the teachers from different state and school
location regarding their perceptions of the actual role and importance ofthe role of
the secondary school counselor on each subscale of the CRAS?
15. Is there a difference among the administrators of different gender and
years of teaching experience regarding their perceptions of the actual role and
importance ofthe role ofthe secondary school counselor on each subscale ofthe
CRAS?
16. Is there a difference among the counselors of different gender and
years ofteaching experience regarding their perceptions of the actual role and
importance ofthe role of the secondary school counselor on each subscale of the
CRAS?

14
17. Is there a difference among the teachers of different gender and years
of teaching experience regarding their perceptions ofthe actual role and
importance ofthe role ofthe secondary school counselor on each subscale of the
CRAS?
18. Is there a difference among the administrators of different gender and
age regarding their perceptions ofthe actual role and importance of the role of the
secondary school counselor on each subscale ofthe CRAS?
19. Is there a difference among the counselors of different gender and age
regarding their perceptions of the actual role and importance of the role ofthe
secondary school counselor on each subscale of the CRAS?
20. Is there a difference among the teachers of different gender and age
regarding their perceptions of the actual role and importance of the role of the
secondaiy school counselor on each subscale of the CRAS?
Definition of Terms
For the purpose of this study, the following definitions have been
formulated.
Counseling is defined as an interactive process between counselors and students or
counselors and parents or counselors and teachers.
Counselor role assessment survey is an instrument developed by the researcher to
obtain information regarding the actual role ofthe school counselor and the
importance of the counselor's role in meeting the general needs of the secondary
school students in Malaysia.
Functions of the secondary school counselor refers to those tasks which the
secondary school counselor performs as part of his/her professional duties.

Guidance is defined as the process of helping an individual understand himselfand
his world (Shertzer& Stone, 1981).
Guidance activities are formalized activities which the school takes to make
guidance and counseling operational and available to students (Shertzer & Stone,
1981).
Likert scale is a measure assigning 1 to 5 points to categories chosen on a
questionnaire. In the present study, the five point scale for how often the
counselor performs the stated functions ranges from Never, Rarely, Sometimes,
Often to Always. The scale for the importance of the stated functions ofthe
counselor ranges from 1 to 5 (unimportant to crucially important).
Peninsular Malaysia has 12 states and from the south to the north they are Johor,
Malacca, Negeri Sembilan, Selangor, Federal Territory, Perak, Pahang,
Terengganu, Kelantan, Kedah, Penang and Perlis.
Perception is defined as an individual or group understanding and knowledge of a
position, based on previous experiences and assumptions (Harris, 1986).
Role is defined as a pattern of professional behavior applicable to an individual or
to a professional group.
Role of the secondary school counselor refers to the sum total ofthose functions
the counselor is expected to perform as part of his/her professional duties.
Secondary schools refer to the public secondary schools in Peninsular Malaysia.
The students in the school ranged from ages 13 through 17.
Secondary school administrators refer to the currently employed principals, deputy
principals, supervisors, student affairs officers, and/or co-curriculum officers ofthe
public secondary schools in Peninsular Malaysia.
Secondary school counselors refer to the teacher who has a certificate in guidance
and counseling or diploma in guidance and counseling or bachelor in education

(majoring in guidance and counseling). If the teacher does not have any one of the
above, he/she must have been appointed by the principal to be involved in student
counseling for at least three years. In the present study, they are often addressed
as secondaiy school counselors, secondary counselors or counselors.
Secondary school teachers refer to the currently employed secondary school
teachers in the schools. In this study, they are often addressed as secondaiy school
teachers or teachers.
Limitations of the Study
This study contains the following limitations:
1. The study is limited to 98 general public secondary schools in the four
states in Peninsular Malaysia, and using the secondary school administrators,
counselors, and teachers in the schools that were randomly selected. Therefore
findings cannot be generalized beyond Peninsular Malaysia.
2. The study is limited to those aspects of the role of the secondary school
counselor identified by the statements found in the counselor role assessment
survey questionnaire used to gather the data.
3. The development of the questionnaire based on the opinions of the
faculty members, administrators, counselors, and teachers in the United States may
have a cultural bias. Some ofthe items deemed important and appropriate by the
above stated professionals in the United States might not be deemed important and
appropriate by faculty members, principals, counselors, and teachers in Malaysia.
Summary.
This chapter presents introductoiy information about the research study.
The background and setting of the study describes the current guidance and

counseling program in Malaysia. The problem statement, significance of the study,
purpose ofthe study, research questions, definition of terms, and limitations are
pertinent to the study.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The purpose ofthis chapter is to review related literature in the United
States of America and Malaysia so as to gather substantial information which is
useful in developing this study. To explore the perceptions of the role of the
secondaiy school counselor in Malaysia, there is a need to understand the historical
development of secondaiy school guidance and counseling movement in both the
United States and Malaysia. This is because the development ofguidance and
counseling in Malaysia tends to model that of the United States. Previous studies
and discussions regarding the guidance and counseling services offered in the
secondary schools and the role of secondary school counselors were reviewed
because the researcher believed they would provide insight into the present study.
The literature is presented in this chapter by the following areas:
development of secondaiy school guidance and counseling movement in the USA;
development of secondaiy school guidance and counseling movement in Malaysia;
guidance and counseling services in the secondaiy school; role of the secondary
school counselor; and perceptions of the role of the secondaiy school counselor.
Development of Secondary School Guidance and Counseling Movement in the
United States of America
The early histoiy of guidance and counseling in the United States was
characterized by several series of events that continue to influence the profession
today. The beginnings occurred as part ofthe social and educational reform
18

movements ofthe late 19th century. Guidance began in the American public
schools much like any other subjects. It was viewed initially as something that
could be taught by a teacher in a classroom setting to large numbers of students.
Educational historians generally credit Jesse B. Davis, a high school principal, for
the first effort to systematize guidance into the accepted school curriculum (Miller,
1961; Brewer, 1942). In 1907, he set aside one period per week in English
composition classes for vocational and moral guidance. Thus guidance and
counseling began at the secondaiy level as a result of the initiation of a school
administrator, and not a guidance and counseling professional. The intent was
curricular and educational, and viewed largely as an additional function of the
classroom teacher.
Coincidental with Davis's recognition of the need for planned guidance
programs for students, another guidance pioneer arose in an industrial complex on
the eastern seaboard. Frank Parsons, often called the "Father of Guidance,"
established a settlement house for young adults already employed in labor and
industry or in need of a job. Although his early work focused on out-of-school
young people, his hopes centered on a time when vocational guidance would
"become a part ofthe public school system in eveiy community" (Lasch, 1965, pp.
157). Parsons established the Vocation Bureau in Civic Service House in Boston
in 1908. This marked the first "institutionalization of vocational guidance"
(Ginzberg, 1971, pp. 23). From the initial reports came the notion that vocational
guidance should be provided by trained experts and it should become a part of
every public school system (Gysbers & Henderson, 1988). The three primary aims
recommended for implementation were the consideration of a life-career motive,
school assistance injob placement, and a promise of follow-up after placement.

This movement led to the formation of the National Vocational Guidance
Association in 1913.
The single greatest support for vocational guidance in the early 1900s came
from the social reform movement. Tracing the history of vocational guidance
movement, most writers agree that the early beginnings of vocational guidance in
schools arose from a concern for individuals "who had moved from rural to urban
settings or had been victimized by child labor abuses, and it grew out of a general
concern for the job satisfaction of American workers" (McDaniels, 1974, pp.
252). This emergence of vocational guidance in public schools was consequently a
direct result of rapidly changing conditions in American industry and not quite
related to the accepted process of schooling at that time.
By 1910, thirty-five cities in the United States had implemented or were
working on plans for vocational guidance in their schools (Edwards & Richey,
1947, pp. 752). The growth of vocational guidance in schools, however, was an
uphill battle. Even as late as 1937, the Advisory Committee on Education
reported that "in at least halfof the cities in the United States of 10,000 or more
population there are no vocational guidance programs in the public schools"
(Advisoiy Committee, 1938, pp. 112). Nonetheless, there were a number of
forces that combined to offset the indifference and opposition to vocational
guidance in the first two decades ofthis century (Aubrey, 1977).
The early years of vocational guidance in the public schools did not have
strong philosophical or psychological support. The Parsonian model of vocational
choice was grounded on simple logic and common sense and relied predominately
on observational and data gathering skills. This lack of strong philosophical or
psychological support soon provided room for influences from the psychometric
and mental health movements of the 1920s and 1930s. The emerging

psychometric and mental health movements influenced the profession in the
direction of counselor specialists as well as the assessment and remediation of
mental concerns. Baker (1992) stated that psychometrics offered school guidance
the tools for assessment and respectability because the tools used seemed so
precise and scientific. Psychometrics emphasized objectivity, individual
differences, prediction, classification, and placement. With these emphases came
tendencies for school guidance workers to rely on testing and information giving as
the basis for guidance (Baker, 1992).
The mental health movement spawned by Clifford Beer's (1908) book, A
M ind ThatFoundItself and Freudian theory were based on ideas of the
importance of early development and influence ofthe mind on one's mental health.
This movement eventually influenced school guidance and counseling in that there
was a newfound interest in the importance of the formative years as the foundation
of personality and development. School guidance workers started promoting
healthy individual adjustment amongst the students (Baker, 1992).
The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 and the George Reed Act of 1929 were
created to fund vocational education courses, teacher training, and as a by product,
guidance activities. However, the impact of these efforts was not widely felt.
Although there was focus on the need for guidance services to be provided by
professionals, there were no accredited training programs and no widely accepted
philosophical and theoretical underpinnings, particularly those that linked guidance
to the process of education or the development of the individual over time
(Aubrey, 1982a).
Vocational guidance shifted gears and moved into the educational guidance
movement in the 1920s. Educational guidance was first described by Truman L.
Kelly (1914) as an educational activity. The movement advocated activities that

22
focus in helping students make choices about courses of study and school
adjustment problems (Kelly, 1914). The form of educational guidance
promulgated by Kelly owed an early debt to vocational guidance. Early advocates
of educational guidance felt a need to redefine guidance as not simply an activity
appropriate for occupational considerations but for all of a student's educational
experiences as well. The secondary school guidance programs that emerged in the
1920s were often imitations of college student personnel programs that
emphasized discipline and attendance (Gibson & Mitchell, 1981). The
implementation of compulsory school attendance and the influence of the
vocational guidance and mental health movements helped shape school guidance in
the direction of a specialty. Proctor (1925) advocated guidance as a means of
helping students cope with life forces by providing help in the selection of school
subjects, extracurricular activities, college, and vocational school. In short, the
concern of educational guidance was to broaden students' horizons through
guidance (Koos & Kefauver, 1932; Proctor, 1925). It basically attempted to
subsume vocational guidance under the larger umbrella of total life experience.
Specifically, educational guidance had two divergent views. One view
arose from the necessity for a distributive and adjustive element in schools due to
crowding, shortages of administrators, classroom management, an expanding
curriculum, and universal compulsory attendance laws. The second view of
educational guidance began as a broadening of earlier schemes of vocational and
moral guidance and in time gave rise to a view of guidance with less emphasis on
vocational aspects. This view would in time evolve into present day theories of
developmental and psychological guidance (Aubrey, 1982a).
Super (1956) noted that "the concept of development has not until recent
years been applied to the study of vocational choice and adjustment" (pp. 249).

He observed that the term "choice" in vocational guidance was more frequently
used to describe an event and not a process that is continuous and cumulative.
Super concluded with a plea for more inclusion of developmental psychology and
self-concept theory in order for vocational guidance to expand its horizons. The
weaknesses mentioned by Super led to the eventual erosion of vocational guidance
as a viable theory of intervention. His publication entitled, Occupational Choice:
An Approach to a General Theory (Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, & Herma,
1951), revealed the fact that vocational guidance had been operating for years
without a defensible theory or research base. Although this volume did not have
an immediate impact on vocational guidance in the school, it did have significant
ramifications for academic community training counselors (Hummel, 1954).
Developmental guidance attempted to engulf career guidance under the
theme of human development (Aubrey, 1982). The early ancestry of
developmental guidance in schools is traceable to Robert Mathewson (1949).
Wrenn (1962) also pointed to a developmental emphasis stating that "counselors
need to balance undue caution with a risk-taking orientation which will encourage
students to look to the future and to dare to be intellectual and vocational
pioneers" (pp. 109). He also discussed social ills such as increasing divorce rates
and cultural deprivation, as challenges for the new directions in school counseling.
Wrenn's advocacy of developmental goals for the secondary school guidance came
with others voicing similar opinions. Dinkmeyer (1967) advocated helping
children to know, understand, and accept themselves. Also emphasizing the
importance of promoting positive individual growth and development, Zaccaria
(1969) pointed out that the emphasis of developmental guidance should be on
preventing problems.

Prior to 1931, the word counseling was rarely used. Unlike guidance,
counseling in public schools had a 30-year wait between the first recognition of
guidance as a legitimate educational endeavor and the use of counseling as a
helping technique (Aubrey, 1982). Thus individual counseling gradually emerged
as a dominant guidance service in the 1930s and 1940s. The initial impelling force
for the introduction of counseling in the schools was vocational guidance. The
first technique introduced was trait and factor counseling (Williamson, 1965;
Miller, 1961; Bariy & Wolf, 1955; Williamson & Darley, 1937). Williamson
(1965) traced the early beginning of trait and factor counseling to French and
German concepts of faculty psychology and the work of Hugo Munsterberg
(1913), the German founder of American industrial and applied psychology.
Williamson (1950) focused on enhancing normal adjustment, helping individuals
set goals and overcome obstacles to those goals, and assisting individuals to
achieve satisfying life-styles. Influenced by the medical model for treating
individuals, Williamson recommended that counseling competencies should include
analysis, synthesis, diagnosis, prognosis, counseling, and follow-up (Ewing, 1975;
Smith, 1955).
The counseling model that evolved from the trait and factor approach came
in time to be known as directive or counselor-centered. The 1930s depression and
1940s World War II events put a severe test on the early theories ofvocational
choice. Another test ofthese early theories was their applicability to situations
resulting from an increase in the United Sates population from 1900 to 1958 of
some 97 million people and a doubling of the labor force between 1900 and 1950
(Norris, Zeran & Hatch 1960). Finally, vocational guidance had to deal with the
increased opportunities for free public education and the dramatic increase in the
number of women entering the labor force. Collectively, these factors were

25
overwhelming and the early extensions of the Parsonian model were simply too
weak and impotent to deal with the demands ofthe time. The erosion of the
dominant trait and factor approach to school counseling began in the early 1940s
and was completed within a decade. Ginzberg (1971) saw this period as one
involving a shift in guidance technique from one of testing to one of counseling.
He further speculated that part of the downfall ofthe trait and factor approach was
inevitable "once the academic community in the United States caught up with
Freud and Piaget" (pp. 32).
Freedom and self-determination was a major factor in changing the
direction of guidance and counseling in the 1940s, and the prime mover was Carl
Rogers. The writings of Carl Rogers (1961, 1951, 1942) had an enormous effect
on school counseling. The so-called nondirective approach emphasized the ability
of each individual to resolve problems in the context ofthe proper counseling
climate emphasizing the counselor's communication ofgenuineness and
unconditional positive regard. Roger's influence had moved school counselors
away from being highly directive to being eclectic. In addition, group counseling
was emerging as a relatively new idea with some merit for school counseling
(Smith, 1955).
Before Rogers, the literature pertaining to school guidance and counseling
was of a practical nature and dealt with topics on guidance, such as testing,
cumulative records, orientation procedures, vocations, placement functions and so
on. With Rogers, a sudden change occurred and there was a new emphasis on the
techniques and methods of counseling research, refinement of counseling
techniques, selection and training of future counselors, and the goals and
objectives of counseling. Guidance, for all intents and purposes, would suddenly

26
disappear as a major consideration in the bulk of the literature and be replaced by a
decade or more of concentration on counseling (Aubrey, 1977).
In 1952, the National Vocational Guidance Association (NVGA) merged
with two other professional organizations to form the American Personnel and
Guidance Association (APGA). The American School Counselor Association was
formed in 1953 as one of the five original divisions of APGA. The association
publishes two widely respected journals for school counselors: (a) The School
Counselor and (b) Elementary School Guidance and Counseling.
In summary, a thematic view of the guidance and counseling movements in
the American schools resembles a patchwork quilt. This is so because of the
number of separate and distinct movements that have marked the history of
guidance in the schools and the corresponding number of unique movements
within the field of counseling. The growing confusion between the fields of
guidance and counseling is the difference in their regard for schooling as a means
of personal growth. Guidance from its early beginnings in vocational and
educational guidance has always accorded schools and teachers a large part in the
process of individual growth and development. Counseling, however, has not been
this receptive. Commencing with the advent of counseling psychology as a distinct
specialty, those in this area have increasingly placed themselves out of the
mainstream of education and a partnership with teachers.
Thematically, the first four decades of guidance and counseling revealed a
rather harmonious relationship between guidance as purpose and direction, and
counseling as tool and technique. The 1930s marked the last period in the
guidance and counseling movement when counseling would submit to the aims of
guidance. Commencing in the 1940s and extending up to the present time, the
practice and perpetuation of counseling has become an end in itself. The seeds of

27
this eventual outcome were sown in the 1950s when counselor trainers in
universities carried on the heated debates on directive versus nondirective
counseling. Armor (1969) and Sprinthall (1971) noted that the resolution of this
conflict resulted in the school counselors adopting the eclectic model of
counseling.
If one decade in history had to be singled out to have the most profound
impact on school counselors, it would be the 1950s. This period produced major
breakthroughs in theory, research, practice, and a professional organization.
National and worldwide events shape the future of counselors. In particular, major
changes in guidance and counseling happened following the reaction of the
American public to the launching of the Russian space satellite named Sputnik 1 in
1957. There was perceived threat of Russian educational superiority and this led
to subsequent desire to identify academically talented students and guide them into
careers in strategic fields. This occurrence brought about the National Defense
Education Act (NDEA) of 1958. Based on the recommendation of James Conant
(1959) in The American High School Today, the Act provided funding for training
institutes to prepare individuals for secondary school counseling (Gysbers &
Henderson, 1988). As a result, the numbers of school counselors greatly
increased. In addition, this Act also provided testing materials for use in grades six
through twelve. The 10 year period directly following the implementation of
NDEA, witnessed the greatest growth of guidance and counseling, both in terms
of numbers of trained counselors and numbers of schools with guidance services
(Poggi et al., 1982). When the financial benefits ofNDEA stopped, guidance
services were already strongly entrenched as an integral part of school services and
remained an important school service.

I
28
The training institutes had a major effect on the nature of training that
participants received. Pierson (1965) discussed five themes central to the NDEA
training institutes. They are:
1. Determinism and a free society
2. Mental health and individual responsibility
3. Basic science and supervised practice
4. Teaching and counseling
5. The role ofthe school counselor
As guidance and counseling entered the 1960s, the future became
promising. The focus at this time was expressed by Gilbert Wrenn (1962) as "that
primary emphasis in counseling students be placed on the developmental needs and
decision points in the lives ofthe total range of students rather than upon the
remedial needs and the crisis points in the lives of a few students" (pp. 109).
In the 1960s and 1970s, schools witnessed an upsurge in the popularity of
behaviorism and the application of external rewards as methods of teaching,
dealing with problem children, and shaping the behavior and attitudes of students.
At about the same time, the professional literature began to question counselor
effectiveness, with school counselors being censured for not only not helping but
doing damage to their clients (Carkhuff& Berenson, 1967). Dissatisfaction was
expressed among counselor educators on attempts to teach teachers to be
counselors, thus making school counseling a specialization ofthe teaching role
(Kehas& Morse, 1971; 1970).
An era of declining enrollments in the schools and economic problems
across the nation led to reductions in personnel in numerous school districts during
the 1970s and into the 1980s. A number of school counseling positions were
eliminated, resulting in fewerjobs available for newly trained school counselors.

At this time, school counseling was still a field without a central unifying theme.
There were increasing number of themes, all having varying degrees of influence
across training programs and among counselors. The newer activist,
developmental, service-oriented, and eclectic themes were mixed with the
remnants of the trait and factor, adjustment, administrative, and counseling themes.
In times ofjob shortages and threats to existingjobs, school counseling was at a
loss to define itselfuniformly. So the winds of change led the American Personnel
and Guidance Association (APGA) to rename itselfthe American Association for
Counseling and Development (AACD) in 1985. AACD became American
Counseling Association (ACA) in 1992, and ACA has been a part ofthe
interdivisional task force with the Association for Counselor Education and
Supervision (ACES) and the American School Counselors Association (ASCA),
working on plans to improve school counseling.
The development of school guidance and counseling in general and
secondary school guidance and counseling in particular thus far is unclear and
viewed by some as pessimistic. This pessimism can be best explained by the
following statement: "Many counselors define their role in terms of the functions
they perform, there is variation in these functions, and counselors have been
encouraged over the years to consider several different primary roles" (Bakers,
1981, pp. 247). One ofthe issues faced by the school counselors in the 1980s was
the matter on counselor role. Gysbers and Henderson (1988) stated that the role
definition issue was handled by saying that the role of the counselor cannot be
predetermined. In this context, Borders and Drury (1992) stated that legislators,
principals, parents, and even some counselors are still confused, if not woefully
uninformed about the contributions of school counseling programs and the role of
school counselors. As a result, many counselors become identified with

nonguidance activities such as clerical work, mechanics of class scheduling,
periodic substitute teaching, and routine disciplinary matters.
Carlson (1991) noted that school counseling has fought long for survival
and the fight is not over. Matthes (1992) stated that society's real regard for
counselors has never matched its professed regard.
The current trends call for a paradigm shift (Gysbers, Hughey, Starr &
Lapan, 1992; Gysbers & Henderson, 1988) in terms of how counselors
conceptualize their role within the school. The current paradigm centers around
the formal organizational structures that link guidance and counseling with the
overall school curriculum in a more integral way. As opposed to a model
emphasizing guidance and counseling as a collection of services, current
terminology typically incorporates the terms comprehensive, developmental and/or
balanced counseling program (Vanzandt & Hayslip, 1994; Wittmer, 1993; Baker,
1992). In the recent years, the ASCA leaders have displayed preference for the
term "comprehensive developmental counseling" (Hoyt, 1993). The accountability
focus is particularly stressed (Gerler, 1992; Gysbers et al., 1992).
The state departments of education have recognized the importance of
programs that are comprehensive and developmental from kindergarten through
grade 12, and have designed training programs and certification requirements to
reflect this change (Wittmer, 1993; Baker, 1992). Recent ASCA presidents
(Perry, 1991; OBryant, 1990) have placed considerable emphasis on involvement
in the legislative process and on public relations to articulate school counseling
goals more effectively nationwide. These efforts are having an effect as school
counseling is beginning to enjoy some program expansion and renewal (Borders &
Drury, 1992).

Table 1 presents the highlights ofthe evolution of the secondary school
guidance and counseling movement in the United States.

32
Table 1
Highlights of the Evolution of the Secondary School Guidance and Counseling
Movement in the United States
Date Event
1907 Jesse B. Davis conducts guidance classes in Grand Rapids, Michigan.
1908 Frank Parsons establishes the Vocational Bureau in Boston.
1908 Clifford Beers publishes A Mind ThatFoundItself.
1913 Formation of the National Vocational Guidance Association.
1914 Kelly describes educational guidance.
1917 Smith Hughes Act: To fund vocational education courses and teacher training programs.
1920s Sigmund Freud's ideas begin to influence the mental health professionals and
also school counseling.
1920-1930 Number o f school guidance specialists increases in this decade. There are no
accepted training or practice standards.
1925 Proctor advocates guidance program to help students make educational and
vocational choices.
1929 George Reed Act: To fund vocational educational courses and teacher training programs.
1931 The word counseling started to be used widely.
1937 Williamson and Darley publish the Student Personnel Work: An Outline of
ClinicalProcedures and begin the trait and factor approach.
1942 Carl Rogers publishes CounselingandPsychotherapy and begins the era of
individual counseling and client-centered therapy.
1945 Changing social environment after World W ar II and influence o f Roger’s
writings cause counseling to become the dominant school guidance service.
1949 Mathewson introduces developmental guidance in schools.
1951 Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Hernia publish Occupational Choice: An
Approach to a General Theory.
1952 American Personnel and Guidance Association is created.
1953 American School Counselors Association is formed as a division o f the
American Personnel and Guidance Association.
1958 National Defense Education Act (NDEA) is passed.
1959 Conant publishes TheAmerican High School Today.
1960s Beginning o f a boom decade in school guidance and counseling.
1962 Wrenn publishes The Counselor in a Changing World.
1970s Beginning of a decade o f declining enrollments in the schools and
corresponding reductions in school counselors.
1980s Issue on the role of school counselors is addressed.
1985 American Personnel and Guidance Association changes its name to
the American Association for Counseling and Development.
1988 Gysbers and Henderson publish Developing andManaging YourSchool
Guidance Program.
1990 An interdivisional task force of representatives from ACES, ASCA
and AACD/ACA work on plans to improve school counseling.
1992 Baker publishes School Counselingfor the Twenty-First Century.
1993 Wittmer publishes Managing YourSchool Counseling Program:
K-12Developmental Strategies.

33
Development of Secondary School Guidance and Counseling Movement in
Malaysia
The development of secondaiy school guidance and counseling in Malaysia
is recently compared to the development of secondary school guidance and
counseling in the United States. The influence ofthe United States guidance and
counseling movement reached Malaysia in a roundabout fashion. The movement
was exported to Canada and England during the 1960s and Malaysia, with its
colonial ties to the British Commonwealth, indirectly benefited from this
movement.
As in the United States, guidance and counseling in Malaysia also began in
the schools. Its development is closely related to the history of educational
practice and problems in the schools. Since British colonial days, guidance and
counseling in schools have traditionally been practiced informally, through the
system of classroom teachers, house masters, and hostel masters (Othman &
Bakar, 1993).
According to the Federation of Malaya Annual Report on Education
(1955), H.R. Cheeseman, a senior education officer in the British colonial
administration, first outlined the need for guidance services in the Report on
Vocational Education in 1938. But it was only until 1963, following the visit of
R.K. Mackenzie, a Colombo Plan consultant from Canada, was a more structured
guidance service introduced in the schools. From 1962-1963, R.K. Mackenzie
advised the Ministry ofEducation on the establishment of a guidance unit in the
Ministry ofEducation and every State Education Department. He conducted a
six-month course on guidance to 11 assistant supervisors of schools from the State
Education Departments. It was expected that after completing the course, the
participants would return to their own state to conduct in-service courses on

34
guidance for teachers and to start the guidance program in schools. The outcome
of the course was the publication of a book entitled "Perkhidmatan Panduan di
Sekolah" (School guidance services). This book was published in 1966 with the
cooperation ofthe Ministry of Education and Dewan Bahasa Pustaka (Language
Bureau).
Historically, formal guidance services in schools began in 1963 when the
Ministry of Education formulated a policy that secondary schools must initiate
guidance services. The Ministry ofEducation report stated that "In 1963, it was
decided that guidance as a specific function should be introduced in school"
(Ministry of Education Report, Malaysia, 1970, pp. 40). In that same year, the
guidance movement gained momentum when the Ministry of Education set up the
Guidance Section in the Educational Planning and Research Division (EPRD).
The Ministry ofEducation then issued a circular in 1964, KP 5209/35/(4),
which stressed the importance ofguidance services in schools: "It has been
suggested that each primary/secondary school is to appoint one guidance teacher.
To ensure the effectiveness of these guidance teachers, it has been decided that
they be given approximately twenty-five periods of academic work and be
exempted from other activities" (translated text).
The Guidance Section in the Educational Planning and Research Division
started initiating the guidance services by launching the idea of career teachers in
the primary and secondary schools in 1966 (Awang, 1969). The Section then
prepared school bulletins that gave explanations of guidance in primary schools.
Information on the cumulative record cards, school orientation, understanding the
individual child, and problems of transition to secondary schools were circulated.
In the context of assisting career teachers in secondary schools, the Section
published and circulated a series of bulletins on career guidance. In addition, the

35
Section also organized visits to schools to monitor the implementation of guidance
services, carried out research projects, and organized seminars and exposure
courses for career teachers (Awang, 1969).
From 1968, this Section conceptualized guidance as the assistance given to
individuals in making intelligent choices and adjustments. It is based on the
democratic principle that it is the duty and the right of every individual to choose
his own way of life insofar as his choice does not interfere with the rights of
others. The ability to make such choices is not innate, but, like other abilities,
must be developed and guided. Guidance became an integral part of education
because it helps students make their own choice in a way that promotes or
stimulates the gradual development of the ability to make decisions independently
without undue influence from others (Ministry of Education, Malaysia, 1968).
To strengthen the guidance program, the Ministry ofEducation dispatched
another official circular KP 5209/30/(13) in 1968 to all the State Education
Departments and schools to direct all principals to provide the facilities for the
guidance teacher. Unfortunately due to the lack of finance and manpower, the
circular was filed and forgotten by most schools.
In the early years, the major duties of the guidance teachers evolved around
vocational and academic guidance. Since 1971, the counseling function has been
introduced. Counseling was defined as a learning process, carried on in a simple
one-to-one social environment, in which a counselor, professionally competent in
relevant psychological skills and knowledge, seeks to assist the client with methods
appropriate to the tetter's need and within the context ofthe total personnel
program. The client is guided to learn more about himselfand to put such
understanding into effect in relation to more clearly perceived, realistically defined

36
goals so that he may become a happier and more productive member of his society
(Ministry of Education, 1971).
In 1974, a survey was conducted by the Guidance Unit, Schools Division,
Ministiy of Education, to study the status, category, and workload of guidance
teachers. The results of the survey showed that in March 1974, 65.7% ofguidance
teachers in secondary schools had obtained some training and that 34.4% had not
yet been trained at all. More than 60% of guidance teachers had a teaching load
exceeding 26 periods per week and owing to the constraints of heavy workload
(both academic and co-curricular duties), they had to discharge their guidance
duties during school hours or outside school hours or a combination of both.
Drug abuse became a serious problem among the youth in 1980s. By
1983, 94,500 drug abusers were identified (Hussin, 1989). Knowing that the drug
problem would deprive the country of manpower vital to future development and
also bring with it other criminal activities, the government declared drug abuse as a
security threat to the nation. The responsibility for combating drugs in the schools
were given to the guidance and counseling teachers. This led to the change in the
philosophy ofthe guidance and counseling services in schools.
The 1980s marked the growth of the guidance and counseling program in
the schools. The Ministry of Education published and circulated guidelines to all
secondary school counselors presenting the rationale, goals, principles, services,
and activities that school counselors should perform (Panduan perlaksanaan
khidmat bimbingan dan kaunseling di sekolah, 1993; 1984). In the developmental
guidance and counseling services, school counselors were expected to focus on
prevention, enrichment, and remediation.
From the beginning of 1969, the Ministiy ofEducation embarked on to
providing training for guidance teachers in schools. These teachers were given the

37
opportunity to attend the preliminary course on guidance for a week during the
school term holidays. This course was carried out until 1982. Many seminars and
workshops for guidance teachers at that time were conducted with the aid
provided by UNICEF until 1972 when the aid was terminated.
Since 1974, the Schools Division has managed the task of organizing
seminars and in-service courses for guidance teachers, but the implementation of
programs was slow due to the lack of personnel and funds. The organization of a
more comprehensive and systematic program to train guidance and counseling
teachers in schools gained momentum in the 1980s.
The Ministry of Education sent officers overseas to pursue courses on
guidance and counseling. In view that it was costly to do so, the role of training
guidance and counseling teachers was given to the Specialist Teachers Training
College. The Specialist Teachers Training College introduced a one-year course
leading to a certificate in guidance and counseling. In 1981, the Specialist
Teachers Training College made it compulsory for all teacher trainees to take a
course in guidance and counseling. One year after that, the Teacher Education
Division introduced an eight-week certificate course in guidance and counseling
for teachers. The course was conducted during the holidays. Due to the
encouraging response, more and more teachers training colleges started to offer in-
service holiday courses. In 1984, the Specialist Teachers Training College started
a six-month full-time course leading to a special certificate in guidance and
counseling for those teachers who had completed the in-service holiday course.
Four years later, the Teacher Education Division (Ministiy ofEducation, 1988)
introduced a guidance and counseling curriculum, amounting to 18 hours, as an
introductory course for all teacher trainees at the teachers training colleges
(Othman & Bakar, 1993).

38
Guidance and counseling courses were also being offered in all universities
in one form or another. The goal is toward training school counselors. The
Faculty of Education in the University of Malaya has offered guidance and
counseling as an elective subject in the diploma in education course since 1967.
As of 1977, the School ofEducational Studies, University Science Malaysia
offered a compulsory guidance and counseling course in their teacher education
training program.
The Faculty of Education in the National University of Malaysia also
offered an elective course on guidance and counseling to students pursuing the
diploma in education (Othman et.al., 1981). In 1975, the National University of
Malaysia began to offer courses on guidance and counseling to the final-year
undergraduate students in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities (Othman
et. al., 1981), and from 1980, this university started a program offering a diploma
in counseling for teachers and officers who are involved in the helping service.
From 1981, the Agriculture University of Malaysia introduced a four-year course
in the bachelor of education, majoring in guidance and counseling.
The counseling courses that are offered in all the universities bear a striking
resemblance to the counselor education program in the United States. This is
because most ofthe faculty members attached to these counseling programs were
educated in the United States and have their doctorates in counselor education.
From the teacher training perspective, it can be assumed that most teachers
trained either from the teachers training colleges or universities would have the
basic knowledge in guidance and counseling. In schools where there is no trained
counselor available, one o''these teachers may be appointed by the principal to
take the counselor role. He/She may then be send for in-service courses to acquire
more training in the field.

39
In the midst ofthe guidance and counseling movement, teachers and
officers involved in the helping service have united to form the MAVOGA
(Malaysian Vocational and Guidance Association) and PERKAMA or Persatuan
Kaunseling Malaysia (Association of Counselors in Malaysia). The majority of the
members in these two associations are school counselors.
MAVOGA was established in 1973. Its functions are basically to organize
seminars, workshops, exhibitions, and competitions related to vocation and career.
"Panduan" or guidance newsletter is one of its publications. PERKAMA was
initiated in 1980 and its focus is basically to advance the professional practice of
counseling in Malaysia. Its aims are to encourage and assist research in
counseling; promote the growth of knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of
counseling in the multicultural context of Malaysia; maintain high standards of
professional ethics; enhance the professional development of members; and foster
identity, harmony, and cooperation among its members through sharing of
information and experiences.
In spite of the emphasis given to guidance and counseling in schools, to this
day, there are no full-time counselors appointed in the secondary schools. The
present scenario of counseling in all the Malaysian secondary schools is the
availability of one or two counselors but he/she has the dual role of teaching and
counseling.
Table 2 displays the highlights ofthe evolution of the secondary school
guidance and counseling movement in Malaysia.

40
Table 2
Highlights ofthe Evolution of the Secondary School Guidance and Counseling
Movement in Malaysia
Date Event
1938 Report on Vocational Education.
1963 Mackenzie introduces a more structured guidance service in
the schools.
1963 Guidance Section in the Educational Planning and Research
Division is established
1963 Ministry ofEducation formulates a policy that all secondary
schools initiate the guidance services.
1964 Ministry of Education issues a circular KP 5209/35/(4) that
all secondary schools appoint a guidance teacher.
1966 Ministry ofEducation and Language Bureau publish a guide
book entitled Perkhidmatan Panduan di Sekolah (School
Guidance Services).
1966 Guidance Section launches the idea of career teachers in the
primary and secondary schools.
1968 Ministry of Education issues a circular KP 5209/30/(13)
directing all principals to provide facilities for the guidance
teacher.
1968 Focus is on vocational and academic guidance.
1969 Ministry of Education embarks on the model to provide
preliminary training for the guidance teachers.
1970s Ministry of Education sends officers overseas for
professional training and also work at providing training for
the guidance and counseling teachers locally.
1971 Introduction of counseling into the program.
1973 MAVOGA is established.
1980 PERKAMA is initiated.
1980s Efforts to build the counselor education programs in
teachers training colleges and universities.
1984 A book entitled "Guidelines for the implementation of
guidance and counseling services in the school" is published
by the Ministry of Education.
1993 "Guidelines for the implementation ofguidance and
counseling services in the school" is revised by
the Ministry ofEducation.

41
Guidance and Counseling Services in the Secondary School
Guidance and counseling has undergone about a century of reforms and
experiences in the United States, which has resulted in so much writings in this
field. This has made United States a source of reference for many developing
countries including Malaysia.
Guidance and counseling exists as an accepted part of the school system.
Spaziani and associates (1973) stressed that the philosophy of an educational
opportunity for all youth emphasizes the need to assist students in personal
development, education, and career planning. These combined activities were
provided to assist every student to live and learn effectively in the school, and to
grow, develop and become as fully assured and capable a person as possible
(Alberta Department of Education, 1986).
Guidance, counseling, and career development are basically the three
services found in schools. The school counselors therefore have the responsibility
of carrying out these services. This, when expressed in terms of duties or
functions of the counselor becomes a role description.
Arbuckle (1970), Peters and Farwell (1967), and Thompson and Poppen
(1979) used the word "guidance" as a concept (mental image), as an educational
construct (intellectual synthesis), and as an educational service (actions taken to
meet a demand). Conceptually, guidance involves the utilization of a point of view
to help an individual; as an educational construct, it refers to the provision of
experiences which assist students to understand themselves; and as a service, it
refers to organizational procedures and processes to achieve a helping relationship.
Shertzer and Stone (1981) collected definitions of guidance from the literature
available at the time and concluded that overall, guidance is the process of helping
an individual understand himselfand his world. Makinde (1984) proposed that the

42
guidance services needed in the secondary schools are: (a) orientation or adaptive
services; (b) appraisal or inventory services; (c) informational or distributive
services; (d) planning and placement services; and (e) follow-up, research, and
evaluation services.
Rogers (1961) referred to counseling as a series of direct contacts with the
individual which aims to offer assistance in changing attitudes and behavior.
Rogers further stressed that effective counseling consists of a definitely structured,
permissive relationship which allows the client to gain an understanding of
himself/herselfto a degree which enables him/her to take positive steps in the light
of new orientation. Perez (1965) defined counseling as an interactive process
conjoining the counselee who is vulnerable and who needs assistance, and the
counselor who is trained and educated to give this assistance. The goal of which is
to help the counselee learn to deal more effectively with himself/herselfand the
reality of the environment. Arbuckle (1970) gave a broad definition of counseling
as helping the individual to clear away the entangling and hampering tentacles so
that he/she can be what he/she really is, and contribute more both to selfand to
others.
Rogers (1962) maintained that the purpose of counselors should include
guidance and counseling, that is to enhance the personal development and the
psychological growth towards a socialized matured client. Miller (1978) said that
counseling represents only one ofthe services to be found in a guidance program.
Along the same line, Makinde (1984) viewed guidance as the body of
psychotherapy, and counseling as the soul or heart without which a self-
understanding person cannot be produced. In short, the counseling service is the
brain and heart of the guidance program. It represents a part of the total process
of guidance which is helping individuals achieve the self-understanding and self

direction necessary to make the maximum adjustment at school, home, and in the
community.
Career development activities occur in either or both of guidance and
counseling. Students learn that career development is a life-long process of
choosing career paths and roles in life by identifying their own characteristics,
needs and interests, and matching them with the occupational and leisure demands
and opportunities in their lives. Guidance activities typically explore the nature of
personal interests and how to compile information about one's own characteristics,
how to explore occupations, how to identify and use sources of information about
careers and post-secondary education, and how to go about planning a course of
action leading in a career direction. Counseling in career development is intended
to assist the individual student to clear up ambiguity and resolve uncertainty about
personal strengths, limitations, and directions to pursue (Alberta Department of
Education, 1986).
The guidance and counseling services proposed by different authors may
differ but generally they do cover the pertinent services. Poggi and associates
(1982) described the school guidance and counseling program as providing
services such as individual counseling; group counseling; group guidance;
educational planning, course selection, and placement; career guidance and
counseling; appraisal; consultation; coordination, liaison, and referral; evaluation;
research; public relations; and professional renewal.
Chiles and Eiben (1983) proposed the same guidance and counseling
services in schools but they are grouped under 11 categories such as individual
counseling; group counseling; group guidance; educational planning and course
selection; career guidance and counseling; appraisal; consultation; coordination,

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