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Dr R.S.R.Varalaskhmi
             Professor
DLIS, Andhra University
        Visakhapatnam
   Focus areas of LIS research
   Literature search tools – print and Web
   Importance of research design
   Citations patterns
   Scientific research communicates the observations,
    experiences and experimental results, analyses and
    interpretations
   It may be communicated through
    ◦ Research project reports
    ◦ Research theses / dissertations
    ◦ Research articles
   Objective of LIS profession / departments – to raise the
    intellectual tone of the profession through quality
    research
    ◦ S.R.Ranganathan – Normative principles, dynamic theory of classification
      etc.
    ◦ B.S.Kesavan – pioneer institution builder, INB, Indian Science Abstracts
    ◦ A. Neelameghan – Knowledge organization
    ◦ G.Bhattacharya – POPSI
    ◦ Presnt - A.R.D.Prasad - Knowledge representation systems
    contributed at national level for LIS research that got international
      accolades.
   Steady deterioration in the quality of research
   Need to regain the glorious heights
   Need to nurture the research talent
Searching for research agenda – theoretical and applied
   Development of theoretical principles – contribution to the
    knowledge base of LIS
    ◦ Application of metadata for various indigenous materials
    ◦ Revision of Classification schemes suitable to web resources
    ◦ Management theories applicable to LIS –e.g. Six Sigma.
    ◦ New methods of knowledge delivery systems with ICTs
    ◦ Improving LIS vocabulary and conceptualization
   Application oriented aspects
    ◦ Designing of innovative models of information systems
    ◦ Scholarly communication – trends and impact
    ◦ Aggregation for data ware houses and digital libraries
    ◦ Classification and extraction methods for database retrieval
    ◦ Database ownership and copyright issues
    ◦ Collection development policies, procedures and standards –
      longitudinal studies
    ◦ Expert systems implementation for digital library environment
    ◦ Standards for LIS and measuring their applications
    ◦ Community information services in digital environment
    ◦ LIS programmes for differently gifted
    ◦ E-Learning management systems and libraries
   The purpose of literature search is locating information on a topic,
    synthesizing conclusions, identifying areas for future study, and
    developing guidelines for clinical practice.
   Manual – print → Computer databases → Online / Web searching
   Aim: Optimum search – include relevant and exclude irrelevant
    ◦ Comprehensive and exhaustive
   Manual - Print
    ◦   Abstracts -LISA
    ◦   Indexes - Library Literature
    ◦   Journals – content pages
    ◦   Theses / Dissertations (PhDs 1985 – 2005, Shodganga)
    ◦ Books
    ◦ Reference sources
   Web based
    ◦   Search engines and subject gateways, portals
    ◦   E- books
    ◦   E-journals
    ◦   ETDs
    ◦   E- learning material
    ◦   Digital libraries / repositories
Strategies for LIS research
Strategies for LIS research
   A multi-subject gateway.
   Intute is a free online service
    providing you with access to the
    very best Web resources for
    education and research.
   The service is created by a network
    of UK universities and partners.
   Subject specialists select and
    evaluate the websites in our
    database and write high quality
    descriptions of the resources.
   Intute: Social Sciences has been
    created by bringing together two of
    the Hubs of the Resource Discovery
    Network (RDN): Altis and SOSIG.
http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/
   A general gateway to all major
    academic subject resources for UK
    higher education, including other
    university library catalogues and
    electronic journals.
   Resources are carefully selected,
    accurately catalogued, and are
    correct at time of accession.
   DDC is followed to classify and
    organize resources
    http://bubl.ac.uk/
   Creation of Subject Gateways”
    realised in cooperation of the
    National Library of the Czech
    Republic and Charles
    University in Prague.


http://kiv.jib.cz/lis-gateway/view?
   set_language=en
   Social network
    created by M Badan
    Barman

   Academic Consultant
    School of Library &
    Information Science
    K.K.H. Handique
    State Open University
    Housefed Complex,
    Dispur, Guwahati

   http://lislinks.ning.com
    /
   Developed by Dr
    M.Krishna Murthy of ISI,
    Bangalore

   http://www.isibang.ac.in/li
    brary/dg/index.htm
   Provides searchable and
    browsable catalogue of
    Internet based resources
    related to Library &
    Information Science.
   Developed under UGC-
    MRP
   http://www.lisgateway.com
    /
   Librarian's World is a
    network of Librarians
    & Information
    Scientists .
   It is a democratically
    managed site without
    any editor.
   http://www.librarians
    world.com
   A group of professionals
    working in the area of library
    and computer fields.


   Objective behind this project is
    to give maximum information to
    working library and information
    science professionals, teachers
    and students at one place.


   http://www.infolibrarian.com/
   Librarians' Internet Index (LII)
    is a publicly-funded website
    and weekly newsletter
    serving California, the nation,
    and the world.
   It has over 20,000 entries,
    also maintained by librarians
    and organized into 14 main
    topics and nearly 300 related
    topics.


   http://lii.org/
   THE INFORMED LIBRARIAN
    ONLINE is a monthly
    compilation of the most
    recent tables of contents from
    over 312 titles
   valuable domestic and
    foreign library and
    information-related journals,
    e-journals, magazines, e-
    magazines, newsletters and
    e-newsletters
   http://www.informedlibrarian.c
    om/index.cfm
   The Internet Public
    Library is a public
    service organization
    and a learning and
    teaching environment
   founded at the
    University of Michigan
    School of Information
   hosted by Drexel
    University’s College of
    Information Science
    and Technology
   http://www.ipl.org/
   In ancient times, the Library of
    Alexandria was seen as a
    universal store of human
    knowledge.

   The poet Callimachus solved the
    problem by compiling a catalogue
    called The Pinakes.

   On a far smaller scale, these Web
    pages hope to provide a similar
    function for Internet resources, by
    linking to the major subject
    gateways

   http://www.hw.ac.uk/libwww/irn/pi
    nakes/pinakes.html
   a comprehensive virtual library and
    reference tool for academic and
    scholarly Internet resources,
    including Web sites, databases
   a virtual library of Internet resources
    relevant to faculty, students, and
    research staff at the university level
   INFOMINE is librarian built.
    Librarians from the University of
    California, Wake Forest University,
    California State University, the
    University of Detroit - Mercy, and
    other universities and colleges have
    contributed to building INFOMINE.
   http://www.infomine.com/
   Electronic Books –eLibrary – Free e-books and best sites
    http://www.web-books.com/cool/eBooks/Library.htm
    Book Spot, http://www.bookspot.com/ Contact: info(at)startspot.com
    Books2Read.com Bookstore, http://www.books2read.com/servlet/ssitest
    Books On-Line: Archives, http://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/
    BookWire (Bowker) http://www.bookwire.com/
    Brave new e-books, http://www.salon.com/books/feature/2000/03/29/ebooks/index.html
    The eBook Directory, http://www.ebookdirectory.com eBooknet.com,http://www.ebooknet.com/
    ebooksonthe.net, http://www.ebooksonthe.net/
    Electronic Texts, http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/
    Electronic Theses and Dissertations in the Humanities, http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/ETD/ETD.html
    Great Books Index, http://books.mirror.org/
    Great Books Online, http://www.columbia.edu/acis/bartleby/
    Internet Book Information Center, http://metalab.unc.edu:80/ibic/About-IBIC.html or
    http://www.internetbookinfo.com/
    Net Library, http://www.netlibrary.com
    The On-Line Books Page, http://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/
    Read Print, http://www.ReadPrint.com
    Utne Reader online, http://www.utne.com/
    Library Technology guides: http://www.librarytechnology.org/index.pl
Strategies for LIS research
Strategies for LIS research
Strategies for LIS research
   www.shodganga.inflibnet.ac.in;
   www.vidyanidhi.org.in
   http://www.theses.com/
   http://www.georgetown.edu/crossroads/dis/dissertations_alphabetic.
    html
   http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/ETD/directory/browse.html
   http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/overview.htm
   http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/browse
   http://airweb.org/links/linkmap.html
   Different databases for each subject
    ◦ General: Embase, EBSCO; Specific: LISA
    understand how these are organized and indexed
    ◦ Structured collection of descriptive information
    ◦ Author
    ◦   Title
    ◦   Source
    ◦   Date
    ◦   Identify publications based on searchable fields
Strategies for LIS research
Strategies for LIS research
   Identifying authenticity
   Skimming
   Catching keywords and noting down
   Read for scope, relevance, critical analysis
   Synthesize as summary or extract if the content relevant
   Identify areas of controversy
   Identify questions that need future research
   Note down bibliographical details
   A literature review is part of a thesis or dissertation,
   Provides useful background of research outline
   Literature relevant to a particular field or topic.
   It gives an overview of what has been said –authors, theories,
    methodologies, and gaps.
   It is not in itself primary research, but reports on other findings.
   It may be purely descriptive or critical assessment of the literature
    Critical – contrast views; weaknesses or gaps; show relationship of
      ideas
    Descriptive- add comments, bring out themes & trends e.g. collection
     management
   A literature review is a piece of discursive prose, not a list
    describing or summarizing one piece of literature after another.
   It's usually a bad sign to see every paragraph beginning with the
    name of a researcher. Instead, organize the literature review into
    sections that present themes or identify trends, including relevant
    theory.
   Do not try to list all the material published, but to synthesize and
    evaluate it according to the guiding concept of your thesis


(Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It,.
  Retrieved from http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of-
  writing/literature-review)
   Research design is the logical and systematic planning
    and directing a piece of research. The design results
    from translating a general scientific model into varied
    research procedures. The design has to be geared to
    the available time, energy and money; to the availability
    of data…”
                                                      P.V.Young
   Research design constitutes the blue print for the
    collection, measurement and analysis of data. It aids the
    scientist in the allocation of his limited resources by
    posing crucial choices”
                                                 Bernard Phillips
   Components of research
   Methodology
   Data analysis and interpretation
   Chapterisation
   Time and financial budgeting
   Title of the study
    ◦ Should be as brief as possible
    ◦ Should be as precise as possible
    ◦ Should project the scope of the problem
   Justification of the study
    ◦ Analysis of the problem in contemporary situation
    ◦ Relevance and need for such a study
    ◦ What it contributes
    ◦ Indication of implementation of the study
   Review of literature
    ◦ Review of studies conducted earlier
    ◦ Critical appraisal of the studies
    ◦ Identification of missing links or identified gaps
    ◦ Need for the present study and how it adds to the existing literature
   Objectives of the study
    ◦ It may be as questions or explanations
    ◦ Objectives should be lucid and precise
    ◦ Defined without any ambiguity
   Formulation of hypothesis
    ◦ It is a tentative solution based on
         Previous investigation / experience
         The analogies
         Findings of other studies
         The body of theory / knowledge of the subject

    ◦   It should be conceptually clear
    ◦   Empirical
    ◦   Close to things observable
    ◦   Related to the body of theory
   Identification of variables
    ◦ Dependent variables – values are influenced by the values of
      other variables e.g. students visit to library (output) depends
      on the availability of books / internet; Usually denoted by ‘Y’
    ◦ Independent variables – which influences dependent
      variables or which causes variation e.g. books/ internet
      (input); Usually denoted by ‘X’
    ◦ Intervening or intercept variables – interruption of power,
      exam schedule, reading accommodation (process)
   Definition of concepts
    ◦ Terminology defined to achieve clarity
    ◦ Defined in general terms and in the context of the study i.e.
      Operational definitions
   Development of bibliography
    ◦ Following the citation manuals – APA, MLA etc.
   Nature of study
    ◦   Statistical
    ◦   Case study
    ◦   Comparative
    ◦   experimental
   Scope
    ◦ Subject scope
    ◦ Physical boundaries
    ◦ Tome period
   Sampling design
    ◦ Census or sampling
       Probability Sampling – simple, stratified, systematic, multistage,
        cluster
       Non-probability – accidental, quota, purposive
   Method of investigation
    ◦ Empirical – survey with primary data
    ◦ Analytical – case study with secondary data
    ◦ Combination - preferred
   Methods of collection of data (tools)
    ◦ Questionnaire
    ◦ Interview
    ◦ Observation etc.
   Data analysis
    ◦   Classification and tabulation
    ◦   Tabulation / graphical representation
    ◦   Statistical analysis
    ◦   Use of SPSS
   Interpretation of results
    ◦ Statistical testing based on test for significance
         z- test
         t – test
         F - test
   Reporting the findings
    ◦ Writing and revision; editing
    ◦ Style of presentation – scientific style
       Objectivity, clarity, diction, no sarcasm or cynicism
    ◦ Chapterization – structure of chapters
    ◦ Presentation of statistical data
       Tables, graphs, charts
    ◦ Preliminary pages, appendix etc.
   Title – indicate purpose, content
   Author (s) – listed under first author
   Abstract 100-250 words
   Introduction – The significance of the paper (General to
    specific)
   Materials and methods
   Results
   Tables and graphs
   Discussion
   References
   Scientific writing must be accurate, clear
   Use active voice – its more concise
   Write succinctly – precise expression
   Use short, concise terms
   Use third person
   Check grammar, spelling and punctuation.
   Why cite? – acknowledging source is essential
   Which style? Any style but consistent
   Citation styles
    ◦ American Psychological Assocation APA
    ◦ Chicago Manual of style
    ◦ Modern Language Association - MLA
Strategies for LIS research

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Strategies for LIS research

  • 1. Dr R.S.R.Varalaskhmi Professor DLIS, Andhra University Visakhapatnam
  • 2. Focus areas of LIS research  Literature search tools – print and Web  Importance of research design  Citations patterns
  • 3. Scientific research communicates the observations, experiences and experimental results, analyses and interpretations  It may be communicated through ◦ Research project reports ◦ Research theses / dissertations ◦ Research articles
  • 4. Objective of LIS profession / departments – to raise the intellectual tone of the profession through quality research ◦ S.R.Ranganathan – Normative principles, dynamic theory of classification etc. ◦ B.S.Kesavan – pioneer institution builder, INB, Indian Science Abstracts ◦ A. Neelameghan – Knowledge organization ◦ G.Bhattacharya – POPSI ◦ Presnt - A.R.D.Prasad - Knowledge representation systems contributed at national level for LIS research that got international accolades.  Steady deterioration in the quality of research  Need to regain the glorious heights  Need to nurture the research talent
  • 5. Searching for research agenda – theoretical and applied  Development of theoretical principles – contribution to the knowledge base of LIS ◦ Application of metadata for various indigenous materials ◦ Revision of Classification schemes suitable to web resources ◦ Management theories applicable to LIS –e.g. Six Sigma. ◦ New methods of knowledge delivery systems with ICTs ◦ Improving LIS vocabulary and conceptualization
  • 6. Application oriented aspects ◦ Designing of innovative models of information systems ◦ Scholarly communication – trends and impact ◦ Aggregation for data ware houses and digital libraries ◦ Classification and extraction methods for database retrieval ◦ Database ownership and copyright issues ◦ Collection development policies, procedures and standards – longitudinal studies ◦ Expert systems implementation for digital library environment ◦ Standards for LIS and measuring their applications ◦ Community information services in digital environment ◦ LIS programmes for differently gifted ◦ E-Learning management systems and libraries
  • 7. The purpose of literature search is locating information on a topic, synthesizing conclusions, identifying areas for future study, and developing guidelines for clinical practice.  Manual – print → Computer databases → Online / Web searching  Aim: Optimum search – include relevant and exclude irrelevant ◦ Comprehensive and exhaustive
  • 8. Manual - Print ◦ Abstracts -LISA ◦ Indexes - Library Literature ◦ Journals – content pages ◦ Theses / Dissertations (PhDs 1985 – 2005, Shodganga) ◦ Books ◦ Reference sources  Web based ◦ Search engines and subject gateways, portals ◦ E- books ◦ E-journals ◦ ETDs ◦ E- learning material ◦ Digital libraries / repositories
  • 11. A multi-subject gateway.  Intute is a free online service providing you with access to the very best Web resources for education and research.  The service is created by a network of UK universities and partners.  Subject specialists select and evaluate the websites in our database and write high quality descriptions of the resources.  Intute: Social Sciences has been created by bringing together two of the Hubs of the Resource Discovery Network (RDN): Altis and SOSIG. http://www.intute.ac.uk/socialsciences/
  • 12. A general gateway to all major academic subject resources for UK higher education, including other university library catalogues and electronic journals.  Resources are carefully selected, accurately catalogued, and are correct at time of accession.  DDC is followed to classify and organize resources http://bubl.ac.uk/
  • 13. Creation of Subject Gateways” realised in cooperation of the National Library of the Czech Republic and Charles University in Prague. http://kiv.jib.cz/lis-gateway/view? set_language=en
  • 14. Social network created by M Badan Barman  Academic Consultant School of Library & Information Science K.K.H. Handique State Open University Housefed Complex, Dispur, Guwahati  http://lislinks.ning.com /
  • 15. Developed by Dr M.Krishna Murthy of ISI, Bangalore  http://www.isibang.ac.in/li brary/dg/index.htm
  • 16. Provides searchable and browsable catalogue of Internet based resources related to Library & Information Science.  Developed under UGC- MRP  http://www.lisgateway.com /
  • 17. Librarian's World is a network of Librarians & Information Scientists .  It is a democratically managed site without any editor.  http://www.librarians world.com
  • 18. A group of professionals working in the area of library and computer fields.  Objective behind this project is to give maximum information to working library and information science professionals, teachers and students at one place.  http://www.infolibrarian.com/
  • 19. Librarians' Internet Index (LII) is a publicly-funded website and weekly newsletter serving California, the nation, and the world.  It has over 20,000 entries, also maintained by librarians and organized into 14 main topics and nearly 300 related topics.  http://lii.org/
  • 20. THE INFORMED LIBRARIAN ONLINE is a monthly compilation of the most recent tables of contents from over 312 titles  valuable domestic and foreign library and information-related journals, e-journals, magazines, e- magazines, newsletters and e-newsletters  http://www.informedlibrarian.c om/index.cfm
  • 21. The Internet Public Library is a public service organization and a learning and teaching environment  founded at the University of Michigan School of Information  hosted by Drexel University’s College of Information Science and Technology  http://www.ipl.org/
  • 22. In ancient times, the Library of Alexandria was seen as a universal store of human knowledge.  The poet Callimachus solved the problem by compiling a catalogue called The Pinakes.  On a far smaller scale, these Web pages hope to provide a similar function for Internet resources, by linking to the major subject gateways  http://www.hw.ac.uk/libwww/irn/pi nakes/pinakes.html
  • 23. a comprehensive virtual library and reference tool for academic and scholarly Internet resources, including Web sites, databases  a virtual library of Internet resources relevant to faculty, students, and research staff at the university level  INFOMINE is librarian built. Librarians from the University of California, Wake Forest University, California State University, the University of Detroit - Mercy, and other universities and colleges have contributed to building INFOMINE.  http://www.infomine.com/
  • 24. Electronic Books –eLibrary – Free e-books and best sites http://www.web-books.com/cool/eBooks/Library.htm Book Spot, http://www.bookspot.com/ Contact: info(at)startspot.com Books2Read.com Bookstore, http://www.books2read.com/servlet/ssitest Books On-Line: Archives, http://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/ BookWire (Bowker) http://www.bookwire.com/ Brave new e-books, http://www.salon.com/books/feature/2000/03/29/ebooks/index.html The eBook Directory, http://www.ebookdirectory.com eBooknet.com,http://www.ebooknet.com/ ebooksonthe.net, http://www.ebooksonthe.net/ Electronic Texts, http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/ Electronic Theses and Dissertations in the Humanities, http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/ETD/ETD.html Great Books Index, http://books.mirror.org/ Great Books Online, http://www.columbia.edu/acis/bartleby/ Internet Book Information Center, http://metalab.unc.edu:80/ibic/About-IBIC.html or http://www.internetbookinfo.com/ Net Library, http://www.netlibrary.com The On-Line Books Page, http://digital.library.upenn.edu/books/ Read Print, http://www.ReadPrint.com Utne Reader online, http://www.utne.com/ Library Technology guides: http://www.librarytechnology.org/index.pl
  • 28. www.shodganga.inflibnet.ac.in;  www.vidyanidhi.org.in  http://www.theses.com/  http://www.georgetown.edu/crossroads/dis/dissertations_alphabetic. html  http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/ETD/directory/browse.html  http://www.lib.uwaterloo.ca/society/overview.htm  http://wwwlib.umi.com/dissertations/browse  http://airweb.org/links/linkmap.html
  • 29. Different databases for each subject ◦ General: Embase, EBSCO; Specific: LISA understand how these are organized and indexed ◦ Structured collection of descriptive information ◦ Author ◦ Title ◦ Source ◦ Date ◦ Identify publications based on searchable fields
  • 32. Identifying authenticity  Skimming  Catching keywords and noting down  Read for scope, relevance, critical analysis  Synthesize as summary or extract if the content relevant  Identify areas of controversy  Identify questions that need future research  Note down bibliographical details
  • 33. A literature review is part of a thesis or dissertation,  Provides useful background of research outline  Literature relevant to a particular field or topic.  It gives an overview of what has been said –authors, theories, methodologies, and gaps.  It is not in itself primary research, but reports on other findings.  It may be purely descriptive or critical assessment of the literature Critical – contrast views; weaknesses or gaps; show relationship of ideas Descriptive- add comments, bring out themes & trends e.g. collection management
  • 34. A literature review is a piece of discursive prose, not a list describing or summarizing one piece of literature after another.  It's usually a bad sign to see every paragraph beginning with the name of a researcher. Instead, organize the literature review into sections that present themes or identify trends, including relevant theory.  Do not try to list all the material published, but to synthesize and evaluate it according to the guiding concept of your thesis (Taylor, Dena. The Literature Review: A Few Tips On Conducting It,. Retrieved from http://www.writing.utoronto.ca/advice/specific-types-of- writing/literature-review)
  • 35. Research design is the logical and systematic planning and directing a piece of research. The design results from translating a general scientific model into varied research procedures. The design has to be geared to the available time, energy and money; to the availability of data…” P.V.Young
  • 36. Research design constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It aids the scientist in the allocation of his limited resources by posing crucial choices”  Bernard Phillips
  • 37. Components of research  Methodology  Data analysis and interpretation  Chapterisation  Time and financial budgeting
  • 38. Title of the study ◦ Should be as brief as possible ◦ Should be as precise as possible ◦ Should project the scope of the problem  Justification of the study ◦ Analysis of the problem in contemporary situation ◦ Relevance and need for such a study ◦ What it contributes ◦ Indication of implementation of the study
  • 39. Review of literature ◦ Review of studies conducted earlier ◦ Critical appraisal of the studies ◦ Identification of missing links or identified gaps ◦ Need for the present study and how it adds to the existing literature  Objectives of the study ◦ It may be as questions or explanations ◦ Objectives should be lucid and precise ◦ Defined without any ambiguity
  • 40. Formulation of hypothesis ◦ It is a tentative solution based on  Previous investigation / experience  The analogies  Findings of other studies  The body of theory / knowledge of the subject ◦ It should be conceptually clear ◦ Empirical ◦ Close to things observable ◦ Related to the body of theory
  • 41. Identification of variables ◦ Dependent variables – values are influenced by the values of other variables e.g. students visit to library (output) depends on the availability of books / internet; Usually denoted by ‘Y’ ◦ Independent variables – which influences dependent variables or which causes variation e.g. books/ internet (input); Usually denoted by ‘X’ ◦ Intervening or intercept variables – interruption of power, exam schedule, reading accommodation (process)
  • 42. Definition of concepts ◦ Terminology defined to achieve clarity ◦ Defined in general terms and in the context of the study i.e. Operational definitions  Development of bibliography ◦ Following the citation manuals – APA, MLA etc.  Nature of study ◦ Statistical ◦ Case study ◦ Comparative ◦ experimental
  • 43. Scope ◦ Subject scope ◦ Physical boundaries ◦ Tome period  Sampling design ◦ Census or sampling  Probability Sampling – simple, stratified, systematic, multistage, cluster  Non-probability – accidental, quota, purposive
  • 44. Method of investigation ◦ Empirical – survey with primary data ◦ Analytical – case study with secondary data ◦ Combination - preferred  Methods of collection of data (tools) ◦ Questionnaire ◦ Interview ◦ Observation etc.
  • 45. Data analysis ◦ Classification and tabulation ◦ Tabulation / graphical representation ◦ Statistical analysis ◦ Use of SPSS  Interpretation of results ◦ Statistical testing based on test for significance  z- test  t – test  F - test
  • 46. Reporting the findings ◦ Writing and revision; editing ◦ Style of presentation – scientific style  Objectivity, clarity, diction, no sarcasm or cynicism ◦ Chapterization – structure of chapters ◦ Presentation of statistical data  Tables, graphs, charts ◦ Preliminary pages, appendix etc.
  • 47. Title – indicate purpose, content  Author (s) – listed under first author  Abstract 100-250 words  Introduction – The significance of the paper (General to specific)  Materials and methods  Results  Tables and graphs  Discussion  References
  • 48. Scientific writing must be accurate, clear  Use active voice – its more concise  Write succinctly – precise expression  Use short, concise terms  Use third person  Check grammar, spelling and punctuation.
  • 49. Why cite? – acknowledging source is essential  Which style? Any style but consistent  Citation styles ◦ American Psychological Assocation APA ◦ Chicago Manual of style ◦ Modern Language Association - MLA