IB Psychology - Learning Perspective

Learning Perspective

Learning
Relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of experience
The definition has key words/phrases that help you understand the concept;
Relatively permanent – it must have a continuing or lasting effect for a period of time, however most learned behaviours can be modified (e.g. phobia’s)
Change in behaviour – something must be different about an organism after learning has taken place.
Result of experience – is an ongoing process, which continues throughout the lifespan, enabling us to cope in an ever-changing world.

Not all changes in behaviour due to learning. There is an important difference between learned knowledge and behaviours and those which are innate or unlearned.
Two behaviours that are not normally dependent on learning include:
Fixed action patterns
Maturation based responses
Fixed action patterns and maturation-based responses are not normally dependent on learning, however, they can be influenced by learning.
Behaviours Not Dependent on Learning

A species-specific behavior that is built into an animal’s nervous system and triggered by a specific stimulus
Inborn tendency to behave in a particular way in response to a specific environmental stimulus; involves a sequence ‘(pattern’) of responses (‘actions’) that occur in the same way (‘fixed’)
Behaviours Not Dependent on Learning Fixed action pattern

Example of a fixed action pattern includes:
Cuckoos - lay eggs in other birds' nests. When the cuckoo eggs hatch, the baby cuckoos push the other species' eggs out of the nest. The cuckoo chicks do not learn this behaviour, it is innate to them.
Herring Gull - pecking is elicited (released) by the movement of any red dot, even on objects that do not resemble an adult herring gull. The Herring Gull chicks do not learn this behaviour, it is innate to them.
Behaviours Not Dependent on Learning Fixed action pattern

Maturation
Developmental process leading towards maturity (‘full development’); involves orderly sequence of bodily changes (e.g. of the nervous system).
This relates to our level of physical and cognitive development.
Example
For example, it is not possible for a baby to learn how to walk until it has reached the necessary level of cognitive development (thinking) and physical development (strength).
Behaviours Not Dependent on Learning Maturation

Behaviours Not Dependent on Learning Maturation

Development and Cultural Contexts Historical and Cultural Conditions that gave rise to the Learning Perspective

Historical and Cultural Conditions that gave rise to the Learning Perspective
The early philosophical debates over whether behaviour is innate (Nativism) or learned through experience (Empiricism) set the scene for the learning perspective.
Nativism
René Descartes (1596-1650)
The French philosopher, René Descartes , believed that some ideas are built-in or innate, that we are born with some prior knowledge.
Descartes believed that some understanding of innate knowledge could be accessed through introspection

Introspection
Wilhelm Wundt (1879)
Introspection –
looking inwards
after being presented with simple stimuli, individuals were asked to reflect on their inner thoughts and feelings.
Experimentation
Subjects were often presented with a number of stimuli that were different in some controlled way
Introspection proved to have limited use.
It could not be used for the reporting of very rapid thoughts.
great deal of variety in the reporting (even when individuals had been trained)

Empiricism
John Locke (1632-1704)
John Locke claimed humans are like a 'tabula rasa', or blank slate, at birth
experience is the only way in which behaviours can be formed.
knowledge comes from the environment via the senses

Evolution – Darwinian Theory.
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
Darwin’s theory of evolution via natural selection alleged that humans had evolved from other animals
Darwin argued that there is not a separation between humans and animals, but a continuity between us
Justifies the use of animals in research
Video

Major Researchers in the Learning Perspective
With the interest in animal behaviour and dissatisfaction with introspection as a method rising - more scientific and objective methods to studying human behaviour began to emerge.
Pavlov – Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist noted that the dogs salivated before they received the meat powder stimulus that would normally produce salivation.
As a result of Pavlov's work, clear evidence was provided for a very simple type of learning which was based on the repetitive association of two different stimuli.
Video & Video 2

Major Researchers in the Learning Perspective
Drawing on earlier work by Pavlov, behaviourists such as Thorndike and Skinner proceeded to develop theories of learning that they attempted to use to explain virtually all behaviour.
Thorndike - Law of Effect
Tend to repeat behaviour which have a desirable consequence and tend not to repeat behaviour which have an undesirable consequence
Skinner
was the first to use the term operant conditioning
Used small animals and birds in a skinner box
Video

Behaviourism
John Watson (1913)
Watson started the behaviourist movement in 1913 when he wrote an article entitled 'Psychology as the behaviourist views it', which set out its main principles and assumptions.
Watson was extremely critical of all the approaches that concerned themselves with 'minds' – they were impossible to test using scientific methods (e.g. introspection)
Watson proposed that psychology should only investigate observable behaviour without recourse to either internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such as the mind if it wanted to be an objective science

Behaviourism
John Watson (1913)
Watson’s quote below is well known:
“ Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist. I might select - doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and, yes, even beggarman and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors”
In this way Watson reverts back to the extreme standpoint of Locke

Behaviourism dominated experimental psychology until the 1950s, when its assumptions and methods became increasingly criticised by cognitive psychologists
Many psychologists have moved away from purely behaviourist assumptions, modified theories to provide a more realistic explanation about the origins of learning
Consequently, the Learning Perspective includes cognitive and biological factors.
Cognitive influences lead to research looking at more complex cognitive learning involving cognitive maps and insight learning.
Biological influences considered factors that may influence how easily learning occurs

Cognitive Influences
Tolman (1948) – Cognitive Maps (latent learning)
Köhler (1925) – Insight Learning
Biological Influences
Seligman, M.P. (1970) - Preparedness
An animal can be prepared - and therefore learn a task more rapidly, be nonprepared , or be contraprepared – and therefore find it more difficult to learn a task.

Development and Cultural Contexts Contribution to the Scientific Study of Behaviour

Contribution to the Scientific Study of Behaviour
The behaviourists adopted a very scientific approach, using strict laboratory experimentation, usually conducted on animals such as rats or pigeons.
Animals were tested because the behaviourists believed:
the laws of learning were universal
there was only a quantitative difference between animals and humans
animals are practically and ethically more convenient to test

Framework Assumptions on which Key Concepts are Based

Though we are born with a genetic endowment which is the root of our instinctual behaviours, the majority of behaviour is learned from the environment after birth.
Psychology should investigate the laws and products of learning.
Behaviour is determined by the environment, since we are the total of all our past learning experiences, free will is an illusion.
Only observable behaviours should be studied if psychology is to be an objective science.
There is an innate predisposition to learning.
Learning can take place in the absence of reinforcement.
Assumptions on which Key Concepts are Based

Past Exam Answer
One of the basic assumptions of the learning perspective is that we are born a blank slate - genetics plays no role in learning.
The learning perspective argues that we have an innate predisposition to learn. In addition, Skinner recognized the role of our "genetic endowment." Though the extreme "nurture" position of the radical behaviourists may have its historical underpinnings in Locke’s ideas, it is not a belief of the learning perspective.
Assumptions on which Key Concepts are Based

Framework Key Concepts

Conditioning involves forming associations between environmental stimuli and responses:
Two types of conditioning are:
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Key Concepts Conditioning

Classical Conditioning
We learn to associate two stimuli
Key Concepts Classical Conditioning

Operant Conditioning
We learn to associate a response and its consequence
Key Concepts Operant Conditioning

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist noted that the dogs salivated before they received the meat powder stimulus that would normally produce salivation.

As a result of Pavlov's work, clear evidence was provided for a very simple type of learning which was based on the repetitive association of two different stimuli.
This process was in essence, the process of classical conditioning so named in honour of the work done by Pavlov in this area.

Careful Research
Dogs were isolated inside soundproof cubicles
Dogs were put in harnesses to restrain their movements.
Experimenters were in an adjoining cubicle
Dogs were observed through a one-way mirror.
Dogs were presented with food by remote control,
Other conditioning stimuli also presented by remote control
A tube carried the saliva from the dog’s mouth to a container where it was measured.

Is a simple form of learning by repeated association of two different stimuli (events);
e.g. stimulus 1: sound of bell,
stimulus 2: presentation of food.
Involves involuntary responses ;
e.g. salivating when food is placed in the mouth
coughing when in a smoky room
blinking when a puff of air is blown into the eye
Through CC a dog is conditioned (‘learns’) to salivate at the sound of a bell (when no food is present).

The Conditioned Stimulus, or CS (e.g. sound of a bell) is paired with the Unconditioned Stimulus, or UCS (e.g. food) which normally produces an Unconditioned Response, or UCR (e.g. salivation).
Initially, salivation does not occur to the sound of a bell (CS) as the bell is a ‘neutral’ stimulus (NS), with no connection with food (UCS).
Eventually, the CS (sound of a bell) is associated with the UCS (e.g. food) and produces a Conditioned Response, or CR, (e.g. salivation, like the UCR).

Pavlov’s Experiment Before Conditioning
Neutral no salivation or
Stimulus (NS): irrelevant response
Bell
Unconditioned Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS): Response (UCR):
Food (Meat Powder) salivation

Pavlov’s Experiment Before Conditioning

Conditioned (originally neutral)
Stimulus (CS):
Bell
Unconditioned Unconditioned
Stimulus (UCS): Response (UCR):
Food (Meat Powder) salivation
Pavlov’s Experiment During Conditioning is associated with

Pavlov’s Experiment During Conditioning

Conditioned Conditioned
Stimulus (CS): Response (CR):
Bell salivation
(like the UCR)
Pavlov’s Experiment After Conditioning

Pavlov’s Experiment After Conditioning

The Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
any stimulus which consistently produces a particular, naturally occurring, involuntary, or automatic response.
Examples: food, loud noises, painful stimuli
In Pavlov’s experiments, the UCS was the Meat Powder.
The Unconditioned Response (UCR)
is the response that occurs automatically when the unconditioned stimulus is presented.
Examples: salivation to food, jumping when hearing a loud noise, moving away from something painful
In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the food was the UCR.
Elements in Classical Conditioning

The Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
the stimulus which is "neutral" at the start of conditioning. It would not normally produce the unconditioned response (UCR), but docs so eventually because of its association with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS).
In Pavlov’s experiments, the CS was the bell.
The Conditioned Response (CR)
the behaviour which is identical to that of the unconditioned response but is caused by the conditioned stimulus (CS) after conditioning.
In Pavlov’s experiments, salivation to the bell was the CR.

An MIT student spent an entire summer going to the Harvard football field every day wearing a black and white striped shirt, walking up and down the field for ten or fifteen minutes throwing birdseed all over the field, blowing a whistle and then walking off the field.
At the end of the summer, it came time for the first Harvard home football game, the referee walked onto the field and blew the whistle, and the game had to be delayed for a half hour to wait for the birds to get off of the field. The guy wrote his thesis on this, and graduated.

Tolerance To Drugs
One of the dangers of drug use is that addicts begin to show tolerance to the drugs they use causing them to dose at higher and higher levels which sometimes leads to overdoses.
How does drug tolerance occur?
Psycho-active drugs operate by changing the balance of neurotransmitters in the brain. The body tries to compensate for this by changing that balance back to what it was. Drug tolerance occurs partly because the body becomes better and faster at counteracting the drug and this means that more and more of the drug is needed to produce the same effect (Siegal, 1977).

In the course of his research Pavlov distinguished major processes that may be involved in conditioning. These have become known as:
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Generalisation
Stimulus Discrimination

Acquisition
the initial stage of learning, during which a learned response is established and gradually strengthened
the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to evoke a conditioned response
Elements in Classical Conditioning Acquisition

Forward Conditioning :
CS presented before UCS & remains until UCS presented.
Easiest conditioning
Simultaneous Conditioning:
the CS and UCS occur together
Backward conditioning:
the CS follows the UCS.
Most difficult

Recorla (1998)
To become a conditioned stimulus, the NS must reliably predict the UCS
Condition 1 - The UCS does not happen without the NS
Good learning here, the NS predicts the UCS
Condition 2 - The UCS happens with or without NS
Poor learning here, the NS does not predict the UCS

Extinction occurs in classical conditioning when there is a gradual decrease in strength or rate of a conditioned response or when the conditioned response no longer occurs.
It occurs over a period of time after the UCS is withdrawn/not presented and the CS alone continues to be presented.
Extinction does not mean that a response has been eliminated and will never occur again – following a rest period (such as a ‘break’ from reinforcement) spontaneous recovery can occur
Elements in Classical Conditioning Extinction

Elements in Classical Conditioning Extinction

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of a conditioned response after its apparent extinction.
After a rest period from the presentation of the conditioned stimulus alone, the organism may once again show the conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is presented.
The response that occurs with spontaneous recovery is usually weaker in strength and of a lesser duration than the original conditioned response.
Elements in Classical Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery

Elements in Classical Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery

Stimulus Generalisation refers to the tendency for another stimulus (similar to the conditioned stimulus) to also produce the same, but not necessarily identical, conditioned response.
For example, when a stimulus (such as a bell with a slightly different pitch, volume, or duration – telephone ring) which is similar to the original CS (a bell) produces a response like the CR (e.g. salivation).
Generalised stimuli often elicit a conditioned response that is weaker in strength than that elicited by the original conditioned stimulus
Elements in Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalisation

Elements in Classical Conditioning Stimulus Generalisation

Stimulus Discrimination is the ability to distinguish (perceive the difference) between two or more similar stimuli.
occurs when an organism responds to the CS, but not to any other stimulus which is similar to the CS.
For example, a dog may be conditioned to respond to the sound of a particular bell, but it will not respond to other "bell-like" noises, such as a door bell, a bicycle bell, or a microwave bell
Elements in Classical Conditioning Stimulus Discrimination

Classical Conditioning Higher-Order Conditioning
With repeated pairing, a neutral stimulus can be linked with a CS that is reliably producing the CR
The new CS (black square) is paired with the original CS (bell)
The new CS will also produce the CR
In the example, the black square elicits salivation.
One CS was used to create another CS.

A conditioned emotional response is an emotional reaction (e.g. fear) acquired through CC ; e.g. a particular stimulus that initially does not produce an emotional response eventually triggers an emotional reaction.
Watson & Raynor (1920) used Albert B. in an experiment to demonstrate acquisition of fear and phobias through CC
For example: fear had become a conditioned emotional response; Albert acquired a rat phobia
Watson’s ‘Little Albert’ Experiment

Before Conditioning
NS: Whit Rat no fear (e.g. no crying,
(neutral at this stage) non-avoidance)
but
UCS : loud noise UCR : fear of loud noises
During Conditioning
CS : white rat (originally neutral)
Is associated with
UCS : loud noise UCR : fear of loud noises
After conditioning
CS : white rat CR : fear of white rat (e.g. crying, avoidance)
leads to leads to leads to leads to Watson’s ‘Little Albert’ Experiment

Watson’s ‘Little Albert’ Experiment

Ethical Issues in the Albert B. Experiment
Deliberately exposing Albert B. to procedures involving high risk of psychological harm
Using a psychologically vulnerable participant in research planned to cause distress through use of a fear-inducing stimulus
Not ending the experiment when it is evident that Albert B. becomes distressed
Albert did not have the fear removed (unconditioned) - he may have lived the rest of his life with fears generated by the procedure

Aversion Therapy
Aversion
Feeling that something should be avoided
Involves negative reaction and desire to withdraw or turn away
Aversion therapy
Used to discourage undesirable learned behaviour
(e.g. alcoholism)
Involves CC
(e.g. nausea) with an object or event producing the undesired behaviour

Aversion Conditioning
Before Conditioning
NS: alcohol Pleasant response
(neutral stimulus for nausea)
UCS: nausea inducing drug UCR: nausea
During Conditioning
CS: alcohol
(originally neutral for nausea)
Is associated with
UCS: nausea inducing drug UCR: nausea
After conditioning
CS: alcohol CR: nausea

Taste Aversion
Taste Aversion – a conditioned response involves avoidance of food associated with feeling/being ill when eaten previously.
The tendency to blame food for illness, even if the food had nothing to do with the illness, is called the Garcia Effect . John Garcia gave rats a radiation treatment that made them sick after they drank sweetened water in a red-lighted room. He found that after getting sick the rats would then avoid sweetened water, but they would not avoid red light.
This made sense to Garcia (food or water can make animals sick, light normally cannot). However, the idea that animals would naturally associate sickness with one stimulus instead of another flew in the face of established wisdom in the 1960s.

Taste Aversion
Taste Aversion – involves a relatively permanent change in behaviour as a result of one experience only.
Taste Aversion:
involves one trial/’pairing’ of CS (tasting/eating food) and UCS (illness), not numerous trials (as per CC).
time lapse between CS and UCS can be up to 12 hours or more; but in CC the CS and UCS occur close together

Taste Aversion
Before Conditioning
NS: Food Pleasant response
(neutral stimulus for nausea)
UCS: Lithium Chloride UCR: nausea
During Conditioning
CS: Food
(originally neutral for nausea)
Is associated with
UCS: Lithium Chloride UCR: nausea
After conditioning
CS: Food CR: nausea

Trial and error learning :
is learning characterised by:
trying alternative possibilities until the desired outcome is achieved (e.g. a solution to a problem), that is
the gradual elimination of ineffectual responses and a strengthening of responses that have a satisfactory outcome
A simple way of learning to cope with the environment
Requires that an individual (or animal) be motivated to explore and respond to the environment
Correct responses (trials) must be rewarded
Also called instrumental or operant conditioning
Trial and Error Learning Thorndike's Puzzle Box Experiment

Thorndike’s Puzzle Box (cage) experiment:
Demonstrated trial and error learning in cats
Cat is placed in a wooden cage (puzzle box) with slatted slides; it can see the fish outside the cage, but cannot escape
Cat has to operate a lever to release a door to escape and receive the food reward
Cat initially explores the cage and unsuccessfully tries to escape
By accident (i.e. during trial and error) the cat stepped onto a treadle in the middle of the puzzle box that opens door
Cat escapes and eats the fish (i.e. is rewarded)
Video

The cat’s behaviour gradually became less random. Each time it was put in the box it would learn to escape a little more quickly, until eventually it escaped as soon as it was put back in the box.
This gradual improvement over a number of trials can be drawn as a learning curve .

Cat has been ‘instrumental’ in learning the correct response and ‘operated’ on the environment to achieve the desired outcome

Based on the assumption/principle that an organism will:
Tend to repeat behaviour which have a desirable consequence; e.g. positive reinforcement, such as receiving a treat or negative reinforcement, such as avoiding an unpleasant event;
and
tend not to repeat behaviour which have an undesirable consequence; e.g. punishment
Operant or Instrumental Conditioning

Operant or Instrumental Conditioning
Example:
a child is more likely to say ‘Please’ if there is a desirable consequence, for example
positive reinforcement , such as praise, or
negative reinforcement , such as ending a stern look,
but is less likely to say ‘please’ if punishment will follow, for example
not being allowed to watch a favourite T.V. show.

Skinner Experiment
Used small animals and birds in a skinner box (small OC chamber)
A skinner box is used to deliver:
Positive reinforcement; e.g. a food pellet for a correct response such as pressing a lever
Negative reinforcement; e.g. stopping a mild electric current in the floor of the chamber for a correct response such as pressing a lever
Punishment; e.g. introducing a mild electric current in the floor of the chamber for an incorrect response such as turning in the wrong direction
Video

Skinner Box and Cumulative Recorder

Operant Response
Occurs voluntarily without any stimulus, and
‘ Operates’ on the environment to produce some effect (i.e. reinforcement or punishment); i.e. the response is instrumental in bringing about reinforcement or punishment
Example
When placed in a skinner box for the first time, an animal initially explores and makes random responses.
Eventually it unintentionally presses a lever with its nose.
The action of lever pressing releases a food pellet which is discovered and eaten
Lever pressing is instrumental in bringing about reinforcement
Therefore lever pressing is an operating response (providing the basis for operant conditioning).

Skinner Box and Cumulative Recorder

Reinforcement
Reinforcement is any event which:
Strengthens (‘reinforces’) a response that it follows or
Increases the frequency of that response or
Increases the likelihood of that response occurring again over time
Involves
Satisfying or pleasant consequences
Presentation after the desired/correct response

Positive Reinforcement
Giving something that is satisfying or pleasant when a desired response is made
Example: a child receives money for cleaning bedroom.
Negative Reinforcement
Taking away something that is unsatisfying or unpleasant when a desired response is made.
Example: a parent stops nagging when child cleans bedroom
Reinforcement

LEARNING TIP:
'Negative reinforcement' is one of the least understood key terms.
It may seem natural to think that 'negative' equates to a decrease in the behavioural response, but the overriding factor is that any sort of reinforcement will strengthen behaviour.
The words positive and negative simply refer to the way in which the reinforcement occurs.
Reinforcement

Schedules of Reinforcement
A program for giving reinforcement for a correct/desired response
May involve:
Continuous reinforcement – after every correct response
Partial reinforcement – after some correct responses
Different schedules of reinforcement produce:
Different response acquisition rates; e.g. continuous schedules are more effective during acquisition
Differences in the strength of the response they produce; e.g. partial schedules are more resistant to extinction.

Schedules of Reinforcement

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement
When only some correct responses are reinforced.
Responses conditioned under partial reinforcement are usually stronger and take longer to extinguish than those under continuous reinforcement.
Partial reinforcement may be administered via a range of schedules:
Fixed ratio
Variable ratio
Fixed interval
Variable interval

After a set; unvarying number of correct responses; provided the correct response has been made, e.g. every 10th response .
Because this schedule is so predictable, it is generally very effective whilst learning is taking place (the acquisition phase); although the frequency needs to be relatively high so that the learner does not get frustrated waiting.
Once the acquisition phase is complete, the frequency can be reduced somewhat as the organism feels confident that the reinforcer will come after a certain number of correct responses.
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Ratio

After a varying number of correct responses; provided the correct response is made; but ensuring an average number of correct responses is reinforced, e.g. on an average of every tenth response, but with variations from the 2nd to the 8th response .
This schedule produces a quickly acquired response and one which is generally difficult to extinguish.
Poker machines operate on a variable ratio, schedule.
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Ratio

After a set; unvarying period of time has passed; provided the correct response has been made, e.g. every 10 seconds .
This schedule generally produces a moderate response rate that is often erratic or irregular.
Normally, once the organism realises that time is the governing factor, the response rate drops soon after the reinforcer has been administered and then increases as the time for accessing the next reinforcer approaches.
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Fixed Interval

After varying time periods have elapsed; provided the correct response is made; but ensuring an average time period for reinforcement is maintained, e.g. on an average of every 10 seconds but with variations from 4 -16 seconds .
This schedule generally produces a low but stable rate of response and the behaviour is extinguished more slowly than under a fixed interval schedule
This schedule of reinforcement results in the slowest acquisition of behaviour
Partial Schedules of Reinforcement Variable Interval

Partial Schedules of Reinforcement

Punishment
When a response is:
Followed by an unpleasant event (e.g a child is spoken to sternly) or
Taking away something that is pleasant (e.g. a lollypop is taken away from a child).
Used to stop, weaken or decrease the likelihood of a response.
Note: negative reinforcement also involves unpleasant circumstances, but it has the opposite effect; that is, it strengthens or increases the likelihood of a particular response occurring again.

Punishment is usually considered as unpleasant by the learner and consequently has a number of problems, which include:
a decrease in all behaviours, not just the undesirable one
a strong negative emotional response (anger, fear, anxiety, resentment) which can be directed at the punisher and result in poor learning
physical punishment can lead to an increase in aggressive behaviour in children through behaviour modelling
punishment may reward the punisher and lead to an increase in its use
punishment may lead to avoidance behaviour and dishonesty
punishment does not provide an alternative model of appropriate behaviour.
Punishment

Negative Reinforcement Punishment

Reinforcement or Punishment
Is the learning the result of
positive reinforcement
negative reinforcement
punishment
response cost
Brenda decides to smack two-year-old Liam when he breaks a vase, to teach him not to handle valuable items around the house

punishment
response cost
Brenda decides to smack two-year-old Liam when he breaks a vase, to teach him not to handle valuable items around the house
Punishment

punishment
response cost
Lucy is teaching her dog, Clarence, to ‘shake hands’ on command, by giving him a biscuit every time he gets close to performing the action

punishment
response cost
Melissa realises she needs to improve her study habits, and as a result she gets an A+ on the next class test

punishment
response cost
Bob finds he can relieve his backache by taking an anti-inflammatory drug

punishment
response cost
Harry gets paid every fortnight for his job as a supervisor in the local factory

punishment
response cost
Principal Lloyd decides to give demerit points when students are late to class

punishment
response cost
Principal Lloyd decides to give demerit points when students are late to class
Punishment

punishment
response cost
Because he got cold at the football last week, Giovanni decides to wear a coat to the match today, as it’s very windy

punishment
response cost
A policeman catches Sharon drink–driving and she loses her licence

punishment
response cost
A policeman catches Sharon drink–driving and she loses her licence
Response Cost

Shaping
Is an OC procedure for reinforcing desired responses that successively approximate and ultimately lead to the final, target behaviour.
Involves gradually ‘moulding’ responses to a final, desired pattern by using selective reinforcement.
Example – Target behaviour is for a pigeon to peck a key on a toy piano:
The pigeon is first reinforced for turning towards the toy piano
When this response is established, the pigeon is only reinforced for taking a step towards the piano
Then reinforced only for two steps in the right direction
And so on, until the pigeon pecks a key on the piano (which becomes the only reinforced response).

Shaping

Extinction occurs in operant conditioning when the operantly conditioned response disappears over time as reinforcement ceases.
It occurs over a period of time when reinforcement stops (or is not given).
Extinction does not mean that a response has been eliminated and will never occur again – following a rest period (such as a ‘break’ from reinforcement) spontaneous recovery can occur
Elements in Operant Conditioning Extinction

Elements in Operant Conditioning Extinction

Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished response after its apparent extinction.
After a rest period, the organism may once again show the extinguished response.
The response that occurs with spontaneous recovery is usually weaker in strength and rarely lasts very long.
Elements in Operant Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery

Elements in Operant Conditioning Spontaneous Recovery

Stimulus Generalisation refers to the tendency for another similar stimulus to also produce the same, but not necessarily identical response.
That is, correctly responding to a stimulus which is similar to the original stimulus for which reinforcement is obtained
For example, a pigeon pecks a button when a red light is flashed, and also when a blue light is flashed
Elements in Operant Conditioning Stimulus Generalisation

Stimulus Discrimination is the ability to distinguish (perceive the difference) between two or more similar stimuli.
Correctly responding to a stimulus for which reinforcement is obtained, but not to any other stimulus
For example, when a pigeon pecks a button when a red light is flashed (reinforcer obtained), but not when a blue light is flashed (no reinforcer obtained).
Elements in Operant Conditioning Stimulus Discrimination

Comparison of CC and OC voluntary or involuntary responses involuntary responses (e.g. reflexive) Nature of Response Reinforcement or punishment is given as soon as possible after the desired response. CS should be presented shortly before UCS Timing of stimulus a nd response active participant; i.e. must make a particular response before reinforcement or punishment is received control over the learning process passive participant; i.e. doesn’t have to do anything for CS or UCS to be presented no control over the learning process Role of learner Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning

Comparison of CC and OC

Observational Learning (Modelling)

Occurs through:
Watching another person’s (i.e. the models) actions and
The consequences (i.e. reinforcement or punishment) of those actions
Elements
Attention: Learner pays attention to model’s behaviour to recognise key features.
Retention: Learner retains in memory what was observed.
Reproduction: Learner is able to replicate what was observed.
Motivation: Learner must be motivated to perform what was observed (reinforcement and punishment can influence motivation).

“ Transmission of Aggression through Imitation of Aggressive Models”

AIM
To demonstrate that learning can occur through mere observation of a model and that imitation can occur in the absence of that model.
More specifically:
Children shown aggressive models will show significantly more imitative aggressive behaviour than those shown non-aggressive or no models.
Children shown non-aggressive, subdued models will show significantly less aggressive behaviour than those shown aggressive or no models.
Boys should show significantly more imitative aggression than girls, especially with the male rather than female aggressive model.

Method:
Design: Experimental Design
Experimental Design: Matched Participants
Subjects were matched on physical aggression, verbal aggression, aggression towards inanimate objects, and aggressive inhibition
IV:
aggressive model shown
Non-aggressive model shown
Control condition, no model shown
DV:
amount of imitative behaviour and aggression shown by the children.

Method
Participants:
72 children, 36 boys and 36 girls, aged 37-69 months (with a mean age of 52 months) were used.

Aggressive Model (24) Non-Aggressive Model (24) Male (12) Male (12) Female (12) Female (12) Half the children saw same sex model, half saw different sex model. Half the children saw same sex model, half saw different sex model. Half the children saw same sex model, half saw different sex model. Half the children saw same sex model, half saw different sex model. “ Transmission of Aggression through Imitation of Aggressive Models”

Results:
Children in the aggressive model condition showed significantly more imitation of the model's physical and verbal aggression and non-aggressive verbal responses than children who saw the non-aggressive model or no model at all in the control condition.
Children in the aggressive model condition usually showed more partial imitation and non-imitative physical and verbal aggression than those who saw the non-aggressive model or no model at all, but not always to a significant degree.

Results:
Children in the non-aggressive model condition showed very little aggression, although not always significantly less than the no model group.
Children who saw the same sex model were only likely to imitate the behaviour significantly more in some of the categories. For example, boys would imitate male models significantly more than girls for physical and verbal imitative aggression, non-imitative aggression and gun play; girls would imitate female models more than boys for verbal imitative aggression and non-imitative aggression only, but not significantly.

Conclusion
Bandura demonstrate that learning can occur through mere observation of a model and that imitation can occur in the absence of that model.
More specifically:
Children shown aggressive models will show significantly more imitative aggressive behaviour than those shown non-aggressive or no models.
Children shown non-aggressive, subdued models will show significantly less aggressive behaviour than those shown aggressive or no models.
Boys should show significantly more imitative aggression than girls, especially with the male rather than female aggressive model.

Observational Learning Bandura Experiment (1965)
Three groups of preschoolers watch a film of an adult model being aggressive with a BoBo doll, but with different consequences for aggressive behaviour.
Group 1 (G1): reward
Group2 (G2): punishment
Group 3 (G3): no reward or punishment
Following film viewing, children are individually placed in room with a BoBo doll and other toys. Some are offered a reward to imitate the model’s behaviour.

Results
G1 and G3 imitate aggressive behaviour more than G2 do.
When offered a reward, all groups tend to imitate aggressive behaviour.
Conclusions
Observational learning can occur simply by watching a model irrespective of the observed consequences for the observed behaviour
Learned behaviour may not be performed (i.e. remains latent) until motivated to do so (e.g. by reinforcement)
Observational Learning Bandura Experiment

Observational Learning Bandura Experiment

Cognitive Maps

Cognitive Maps
Tolman trained rats in this maze, with all alleys open
Not to scale; the path on the left is too long.
If “Block A” in place, rats chose green (shorter) path
If “Block B” in place, rats chose blue path
Green path also blocked
Rats navigate as if they have an internal map

Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

Edward Tolman (1938) experiment with rats demonstrated latent learning
Latent learning is learning that in not immediately revealed through a change in behavior
Latent learning occurs without obvious reinforcement
Perception of the model and of themselves influence individual's learning.
Latent Learning

Three groups of rats were given practice trials in a maze, 1 trial per day. The maze consisted of a series of components shaped like the letter T . A trial started when the rat was placed in the Start box and ended when he entered the Goal box, after which he was removed from the maze. Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

When the rat went up the stem of the T, he reached a choice point. If he turned one way, he came to a dead end. If he turned the other way, he came to the entrance of the next component. T START T T T i T T ... GOAL Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

T START T T T i T T ... GOAL Each time the rat turned into the dead end, it was counted as an error. The measure of performance (dependent variable) was the number of errors on a trial. If learning occurred, the number of errors should decrease as more and more trials were given. Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

GROUP 1 : On every trial, these rats received food when they reached the goal box. GROUP 2 : These rats never received food. They were simply removed from the maze when they got to the goal box. GROUP 3 : These rats got no food on Trials 1 to 10. But on Trial 11, and every trial afterwards, they received a food reward. Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

1 10 11 17 Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930) Trials (1 Trial per Day) Average Errors 0 2 4 6 8 10 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 — The day-to-day decrease in errors represented a “relatively permanent change in behavior” that resulted from practice. This was clear evidence for learning.

1 10 11 17 Trials (1 Trial per Day) Average Errors 0 2 4 6 8 10 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 — Group 2 got no food but still improved slightly. Removal from the maze was a small reward. There was little evidence for learning. Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

1 10 11 17 Trials (1 Trial per Day) Average Errors 0 2 4 6 8 10 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 — Getting no food on Trials 1 – 10, Group 3 performed like Group 2 through Trial 11. Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

1 10 11 17 Trials (1 Trial per Day) Average Errors 0 2 4 6 8 10 GR 1 — GR 2 — GR 3 — On the next trial, Group 3 matched Group 1, and then did even better! Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

Interpretation Group 3 learned the route to the maze on Trials 1 to 10 but didn’t show it because there was no motivation to perform. They outperformed Group 1 because the shift from no reward to reward made the reward seem larger by comparison. This is called “positive contrast.” Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

Conclusion We must observe a change in behavior to say that learning has occurred, but if no change occurs, we can draw no conclusion. Learning may be present “beneath the surface.” This supports a distinction between learning and performance. Latent Learning: A Classic Experiment (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

Insight Learning

Insight Learning
Köhler questioned Thorndike, who claimed that all learning is all based on trial-and-error. He pointed out that many problems consist of inner relations, which sometimes need restructuring for the problem to be solved.
Insight Learning involves a period of mental manipulation of information associated with a problem prior to realisation of a solution to the problem.
The learning occurs:
Suddenly
When the correct relationship between the different parts of the problem is realised.

Insight Learning Video on Insight Learning

Insight Learning

Stages of Insight Learning
Preparation:
Getting ready period; gathering relevant information; looking for leads by testing possible solutions
Incubation:
Mental ‘time out’ period; problem and its parts are out of immediate conscious awareness, but continue to be processed in the ‘back of the mind’ or at an unconscious level.
Insightful experience:
Sudden realisation of a correct solution
Verification:
Solution is tested to confirm it is correct.

Insight Learning

Learning Set

Learning Set
The improvement in learning ability that results from previous experience in another similar learning situation
Involves a positive transfer of learning from the previous learning situation.
Example
Learning how to play badminton after previous experience as a tennis player will be quicker than if the person had never played tennis before. This is due to the positive transfer of learning from tennis playing to badminton playing.

Harlow (1949) performed a series of experiments to show that a sudden solution in a problem-solving situation could be the result of transfer from previous problems to the new problem.
Learning Set
Harlow found that his
Rhesus monkey subjects
could learn strategies
for a certain kind of
problem.

You have five problems. For each look at the number of units of water each of the three empty jars (A, B, and C) will hold. Find the best way to obtain the "Required Amount". You may pour one jar into another.
Learning Set 50 10 70 40 5 50 10 63 33 4 45 15 35 20 3 55 15 50 25 2 50 15 49 29 1 C B A Required Amount Size of empty jars Problem

All five problems may be solved by the following process:
Required Amount = B + 2C - A
But, in Problem 5 did you consider simply doing Jar A + Jar C?
Sometimes prior learning can interfere with later learning … for example
Learning Set

For each look at the number of units of water each of the three empty jars (A, B, and C) will hold.
Find the best way to obtain the "Required Amount".
Learning Set 29 4 57 20 5 20 3 49 23 6 21 6 42 9 4 5 10 43 18 3 22 5 46 14 2 100 3 127 21 1 C B A Required Amount Size of empty jars Problem

All five problems may be solved by the following process:
Required Amount = B – A – 2C
But, in Problem 5 did you consider simply doing Jar A – Jar C?
Sometimes prior learning can interfere with later learning
Learning Set

Application Application of Theories and Findings of Empirical Studies from the Learning Perspective

The behaviourist learning theory approach has produced may practical applications for:
education (such as programmed learning)
treatment of those suffering behavioural disturbances (such as systematic desensitisation for phobias, behaviour shaping for autism, and token economies for institutionalised patients)
Operant conditioning principles have been used in training animals to perform tasks, from circus animals to guide dogs.
Watson applied behaviourist theory to both child rearing and advertising, while Skinner offered many suggestions regarding the large scale manipulation of behaviour in society in his books such as Beyond Freedom and Dignity and Walden Two
Application of Theories and Findings of Empirical Studies from the Learning Perspective

Contribution to Psychology
The behaviourists' discoveries concerning the laws of learning were vigorously applied to explain many aspects of behaviour, such as:
Language acquisition, e.g. Skinner's theory
Abnormality, e.g. the classical conditioning of phobias and their treatment
Moral development, e.g. conditioned emotional responses of guilt and conscience
Attraction, e.g. Byrne & Clore's reinforcement affect model
+ aggression, prejudice, gender role identity, etc

Strengths and Weaknesses of the Learning Perspective

The Learning Theory Approach
Strengths
Behaviourism contributed to psychology in many ways:
Behaviourism was very scientific and its experimental methodology left a lasting impression on the subject
It provided strong counter-arguments to the nature side of the nature-nurture debate
The approach is very parsimonious, explaining a great variety of phenomena using only a few simple (classical and operant) principles
Behaviourism has produced many practical applications, some of which have been very effective
Social learning theory has overcome some of the weaknesses of the behaviourists' theories

The Learning Theory Approach
Weaknesses
Behaviourist views have been criticised by other approaches for a number of reasons
Ethologists argued that the behaviourists ignored innate, builtin biases in learning due to evolution, but also disagreed with the behaviourists' use of animals and laboratory experimentation, saying that there is a biologically qualitative difference between humans and other animals and that experiments only demonstrate artificial, not natural learning
Cognitive psychologists think that behaviourism ignores important mental processes involved in learning; while the humanistic approach disliked their rejection of conscious mental experience

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IB Psychology - Learning Perspective

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IB Psychology - Learning Perspective — Presentation Transcript