IB Psychology - Qualitative Research Methods - Paper 3

Research Methodology IB Psychology Higher Level

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods

Psychologists distinguish between two types of research methods:

quantitative research methods

qualitative research methods

Quantitative methods demonstrate a systematic approach to the investigation of behaviour.

Some aspects of behaviour are not suitable for investigation by quantitative methods and therefore qualitative methods must be used.

In some cases the distinction between qualitative and quantitative approaches is difficult to determine.

Quantitative Research Methods

Psychologists use quantitative methods to investigate areas of study where it is possible to test hypotheses under rigorous conditions.

Experiments can take place in the laboratory or in the field.

The aim is to be able to establish a cause and effect relationship through the use of descriptive as well as inferential statistics, allowing the researcher to determine the significance of the results.

Qualitative Research Methods

gather information about the `qualities‘ or characteristics of what is being studied.

Although qualitative research may involve the use of descriptive statistics, more frequently it involves methods that do not usually employ numerical methods; they may be descriptions, words, meanings, pictures, texts, etc…

Information gathered may be collected by:

Interviews

Questionnaires/surveys

Observation

Content analysis

Case studies

Strengths

Provide rich data – that is, in depth descriptions of individual experiences based on concepts, meanings, and explanations emerging from the data.

Particularly useful for investigating complex and sensitive issues, such as coping with illness, human sexuality, homelessness, or living in a violent relationship.

Explain phenomena – that is, go beyond mere observation of phenomena to understand what lies behind them.

Identify and evaluate factors that contribute to solving problem.

Generate new ideas and theories to explain and overcome problems.

People are studies in their own environment, which increases validity.

Weaknesses

Can be very time consuming and generate a huge amount of data.

Data analysis can be difficult because of the amount of data and no clear strategy for analysis.

Interpretation of data may be subjective.

Quantitative and Qualitative Methods Measures of utility of results Assessing quality of outcomes Position of researcher Study plan Aim Philosophical foundation Transferability Generalisability Indirect quality assurance methods of trustworthiness Direct tests of validity and reliability using statistics Integral part of research process Aims to be detached and objective Iterative, flexible Step-wise, predetermined To explore complex human issues To test pre-set hypothesis Inductive, holistic Deductive, reductionalist Qualitative Quantitative

The children's book, The Little Prince , highlights the difference between quantitative and qualitative research methods. He says:

Grown ups love figures. When you tell them you have made a new friend they never ask you, `What does his voice sound like? What games does he like best? Does he collect butterflies?' Instead, they demand, `How old is he? How many brothers does he have?' Only from these figures do they think they have learned anything about him.

Most psychologists believe that there is generally value in both qualitative and quantitative research methods. However, because quantitative research methods enable greater precision, researchers tend to favour their use.

Students will be expected to explain, apply and evaluate the following when using all qualitative methods.

Ethics

Participant and researcher expectancies

Demand characteristics

Sampling techniques

Qualitative Research Methods Ethics

Informed Consent

Informed

It is important to inform participants so that they understand any important implications of the research on themselves

participants are appropriately informed ( given detailed information) about:

nature and purpose of research

the rights of the participants

Participant’s right of withdrawal

Confidentiality of findings

any risks involved.

Consent

It is important to obtain written consent from participants so that the researcher has a record of participants’ informed agreement to take part in the research

Experimental studies involving children need the written consent of parent(s) or guardian(s). Where an experimental study is conducted with children in a school, the written consent of the teachers concerned must also be obtained.

Participant’s Right of Withdrawal

Participants are entitled to leave the study at any time during the conduct of the study.

Pressure must not be placed on any individual participant to continue with the investigation beyond this point.

Participants may withdraw their results from the study at any time following the completion of the study.

Confidentiality of Findings

prior to collecting information must explain participants right to confidentiality and obtain their written consent - anonymity for each participant must be guaranteed.

take reasonable precautions to protect confidentiality of information obtained

make provisions for maintaining confidentiality in the collection, recording, accessing, storage and disposal of information

may possibly disclose confidential information:

with the consent of the relevant participant

where there is a legal obligation to do so

if there is a risk of harm to the participant that can be averted only by disclosing information

Justification for using Deception

In situations in which deception may be ethically justifiable to maximize benefits and minimize harm, psychologists have a serious obligation to consider the need for, the possible consequences of, and their responsibility to correct any resulting mistrust or other harmful effects that arise from the use of such techniques.

Ethical committees may approve research using deception if researchers can demonstrate:

there are no suitable alternatives involving fuller disclosure by which the aims of the research can be achieved;

the potential benefits of the research are sufficient to justify both the limited disclosure to participants;

whenever possible and appropriate, after their participation has ended, participants will be:

provided with information about the aims of the research and an explanation of why the omission or alteration was necessary (debriefed); and

offered the opportunity to withdraw any data provided by them.

Debriefing

provides an opportunity for participants to obtain appropriate information about the nature, results and conclusions of the research

corrects mistaken attitudes and beliefs about the research

anticipates the subsequent effects of research participation and provides information on services available to alleviate unnecessary distress that may arise from the participation.

Qualitative Research Methods Experimenter and Participant Expectancies

The various ways in which the experimenters’ expectancies, personal characteristics, misrecordings of data, and so on can influence the findings of a study.

experimenter’s expectations have a systematic effect on the performance of the participants, therefore, any change in a participant’s response is due to the behaviour of the experimenter rather than the effect of the IV.

the unintentional actions that may occur in the collection and treatment of experimental data, including incorrectly reading raw data and wrongly interpreting a participant's response

Qualitative Research Methods Experimenter and Participant Expectancies Experimenter Expectancies

Experimenter effects can include:

a research assistant unintentionally gives participants information about an experimental procedure that leads them to act differently from how they would normally act.

Subtle differences in facial expressions (such as smiling to one group, but not to the other) can change the expectations of participants.

unconsciously give, voice or other cues

which give the person confidence, and

which may help them do well in the test

Perhaps the first demonstration of experimenter expectancy involved a horse known as Clever Hans. This story illustrates of the importance of systematic and controlled observation in scientific enquiry.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a German mathematics teacher claimed that he owned a horse who was truly intelligent. ‘Clever Hans’ could count, do simple arithmetic, read German, give the date and time, and answer simple questions.

When asked something, Hans responded by tapping his forefoot the appropriate number of times or by pointing with his nose to one of a number of alternatives

Qualitative Research Methods Experimenter and Participant Expectancies Experimenter Expectancies Clever Hans—The Counting Horse

Clever Hans—The Counting Horse Qualitative Research Methods Experimenter and Participant Expectancies Experimenter Expectancies

Through careful, controlled and systematic observations, the scientists concluded that Hans could not answer questions that his owner did not know the answer to, nor could he answer questions when he could not see his owner.

They discovered that Hans’s owner would prompt or cue Hans by making very slight movements that signalled for Hans to either begin tapping or stop tapping his forefoot.

Similarly, a very slight movement from the owner signalled to Hans a turn of his nose to the left or the right. The basis of Hans’s amazing talents was exposed.

Qualitative Research Methods Experimenter and Participant Expectancies Clever Hans—The Counting Horse Experimenter Expectancies

Rosenthal (1966) - Experimenter effects in behavioural research

Rosenthal (1966) asked student experimenters to count the number of head turns and body contractions made by flatworms.

Students were told that they should expect a lot of activity from half of the worms, but very little activity from the others half (in fact, worms were assigned at random to the two groups).

Surprisingly, the experimenters reported twice as many head turns and three times as many body contractions in the worms that were allegedly “highly active” as in the “inactive” ones!

refers to the participant's behavioural response being influenced by their expectation of how they should behave

Placebo effect

any change in a response of participants due to their belief that they are receiving some kind of experimental treatment, rather than due to the effect of the IV.

refers to the participant's behavioural response being influenced by their expectation of how they should behave

Qualitative Research Methods Experimenter and Participant Expectancies Participant Expectancies

Hawthorne effect

The effect on participants of simply being the focus of the investigation

The notion that if participants are aware of being part of an experimental group, performance may improve for that reason.

Hawthorne Electrical Plant, USA (1920s)

The productivity of five female workers was assessed over two years under a number of conditions, e.g. changes of illumination and timing of the rest break.

The surprising result was that productivity increased whatever the change and even increased when returned to the worst set

This makes the impact of the independent variable (if any) impossible to ascertain.

Qualitative Research Methods Experimenter and Participant Expectancies Participant Expectancies

Qualitative Research Methods Demand Characteristics

Demand characteristics refers to the fact that most participants do their best to comply with what they perceive to be the demands of the experimental situation

People who are taking part in an experiment do so in a spirit of co-operation, and they want their results to be helpful to the experimenter.

As a result of this, they are overly co-operative, and this can mean that a researcher ends up with data that lack ecological validity.

Participants spent several hours adding numbers on

random number sheets, then tearing up each

completed sheet into at least 32 pieces. Many of

the participants treated the situation as a test of

endurance, and this motivated them to keep going.

Qualitative Research Methods Demand Characteristics

Qualitative Research Methods Sampling Techniques

The selection of participants for research is called sampling .

Sample

is a subset of a larger group that has been chosen to be studied.

should normally reflect or be representative of the population from which it is drawn.

a representative sample should mirror such characteristics as socio-economic background, rural versus urban home setting, ethnicity, religion, race, etc

Population

is the term used to describe the larger group from which the sample was chosen.

When participants are selected we must to ensure that

the sample selected is representative of the population being studied

the results can be generalised to all members of the sampled population

Biased sample:

does not accurately represent the population from which it was drawn

not everyone from the population of interest had an equal chance of being selected

Quantitative methods frequently employ inferential tests based upon samples that are randomly selected from a parent population. Since qualitative research is not based on inferential statistics then random sampling techniques are not needed.

Most of the sampling techniques used in qualitative research methods focus on important characteristics of a population that are the main concern in evaluation of research.

The sampling techniques that can be used in qualitative research methods include:

Stratified Sampling,

Purposive Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Convenience or Opportunity Sampling

Stratified Sampling

Stratified sampling procedures involves:

Dividing the population to be studied into subgroups ( strata - usually characteristics such as age, income, ethnic background, religion, sex, IQ scores, etc)

then

Selecting a separate sample from each subgroup in the same proportion as the subgroups occur in the population.

Example :

If a population comprises 70% boys and 30% girls, the stratified sample will comprise 70% boys and 30% girls.

Stratified Sampling

Strengths

A deliberate effort is made to identify the characteristics of a sample most important for it to be representative of the population.

Weaknesses

Very time consuming and difficult to carry out effectively since a lot of calculations are involved

it is often hard to know which sub-groups to identify. It is a waste of time and effort if we use characteristics (e.g. gender) that are of no relevance to the study. What is more troublesome is if we fail to identify sub-groups on the basis of some characteristic which is actually highly relevant

The researcher actively selects a particular group of people to answer the research question, rather than a simple demographic stratification.

Participants are chosen on the basis of:

The aim of the study

Existing knowledge in the field, e.g. the researcher's practical knowledge of the research area, the available literature and evidence from the study itself.

Particular characteristics (variables) that might influence an individual's contribution to explore the research topic. For example:

Socioeconomic, specific experiences, occupation, and social roles

Purposive Sampling Qualitative Research Methods Sampling Techniques

Strengths

Useful in situations where the researcher needs to obtain a sample quickly to investigate an urgent problem.

May be the only option, if the desired population for the study is rare or difficult to locate.

researchers recognize that some informants are 'richer' than others and that these people are more likely to provide insight and understanding for the researcher.

Choosing someone at random to answer a qualitative question would be analogous to randomly asking a passer-by how to repair a broken down car.

Weaknesses

high likelihood of a biased unrepresentative sample

Purposive Sampling Qualitative Research Methods Sampling Techniques

relies on referrals – the researcher simply asks participants in the study if they know other potential participants – one participant recruits another.

Strengths

It is cost efficient – do not have to use expensive or time consuming techniques to locate participants

Can be used for hidden populations or populations that might otherwise be difficult to access (e.g. sex workers, drug users, victims of domestic violence etc).

Weaknesses

Confidentiality concerns, because the participants know the identity of the other participants

Snowball Sampling Qualitative Research Methods Sampling Techniques

This is the least rigorous sampling method which involves the selection of the most accessible participants (convenient) or participants who just happen to be about at the time of the investigation (opportunistic).

There is an element of convenience sampling in many qualitative studies, but a more thoughtful approach to selection of a sample is usually justified.

Strengths

It is the least costly to the researcher, in terms of time, effort and money

Weaknesses

it has the severe disadvantage that the participants may be nothing like a representative sample.

Convenience or Opportunity Sampling Qualitative Research Methods Sampling Techniques

There are many different qualitative research methods. Students must study in detail only the following qualitative research methods.

Interviews

Questionnaires/surveys

Observation

Content analysis

Case study

For all of the qualitative methods, students will be expected to:

explain each method

identify conditions appropriate for the use of each method (sampling techniques, participant and researcher expectancies, how demand characteristics affect data)

evaluate the strengths and limitations of each method

explain why a single method of qualitative research is often inadequate for drawing conclusions.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews

On the surface, an interview simply consists of two people talking together about some topic which is of interest to them both.

There are, in fact, a number of important differences between interviewing someone and having a normal conversation with them as the following set of comparisons make clear.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Conversation Interview

A conversation generally lacks an explicitly mentioned purpose.

An interview always has an explicitly mentioned purpose.

There are unspoken rules that you should avoid repeating yourself.

Repetition of questions enables one to check that the information is reliable and can reveal new information.

Both participants can ask questions.

Questioning is largely restricted to the interviewer.

Both participants are likely to express interest and/or ignorance in what the other is saying of topics which are raised in an interview

Both interest and ignorance are likely to be expressed only by the interviewer.

Conversation depends to a high degree on shared common knowledge.

Interviewing requires that all implicit knowledge from a respondent is brought out into the open and made explicit.

Answers should, in general be as brief as politeness allows.

Answers should, in general be as brief as politeness allows.

Answers should always be as detailed as possible.

Interviews differ in the extent to which they are structured. At one end of the continuum is the most structured form of interview, in which the questioning process is tightly organised: at the other is the wholly unstructured form.

Students are expected to be able to define, explain, apply and evaluate the terms below.

Types of interview:

Structured

Semi-structured

Unstructured

One-to-one interviews

Conversational interviews

Small-group interviews (focus groups)

E-mail and telephone interviews

Verbal protocols (think-aloud protocols)

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Structured Interviews

Structured interviews consist of the interviewer asking each respondent the same questions with the same precise wording and sequence of questions

the precise form and direction of the questioning is determined in advance of the interview.

No interpretation of meaning should be offered,

No deviation from the order of questions on the interview schedule,

No further probing of answers should be made.

Deviation from the schedule throws doubt upon the reliability of the investigation.

Structured interviews are the nearest type of interview to a questionnaire, in its most extreme form, it would consist simply of an interviewer reading through a prepared list of questions, and writing down the respondent's answers.

The questions may even be phrased in such a way that a limited range of responses can be elicited.

For example: "Do you think that health services in this area are excellent, good, average or poor?

In this cases answers may be coded and subjected to quantitative analysis

Structured interviews are generally quicker to do but they reveal considerably less data than unstructured interviews.

If the direction of your inquiry is perfectly clear from the outset

If you only need obtain answers to a set of questions which you can formulate in advance

Usually used in large scale interview-based surveys, e.g. market research

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Structured Interviews – Conditions for Usage

It is much harder for the interview to be deflected from the topic in hand.

Speedy administration, it provides a relatively quick and easy way of obtaining data

is economical with the interviewer's time.

respondents may feel more ready to participate given low time/effort commitment

Interviewers need not have all the skills and experience required for unstructured procedures as there is no need to try to think of the next question to ask.

Interviews can be replicated. Data is more objectively verifiable. Results can be reviewed (compared and analysed) by other researchers. Results are more generalisable.

Reduction of interpersonal bias factors.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Structured Interviews – Strengths

Participant limited to a structured response.

Data obtained can be trivial

Narrow range and quality of information gathered, respondents cannot express complexities and subtleties of an issue .

Interviewer is prevented from following any new directions for the inquiry

Does not engage participant on a personal level and therefore may feel more like an interrogation than an interview

Social desirability bias - Most people want to present a favourable impression of themselves to other people, and this may lead them to distort their answers to personal questions.

Question wordings cannot be adapted to levels of understanding of the respondent.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Structured Interviews – Limitations

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Unstructured Interviews

Unstructured interviews have very little structure at all. The interviewer goes into the interview with the aim of discussing a limited number of topics in great detail, sometimes as few as one or two. The respondent takes over more of the direction of the interview

There is no set wording to questions and the researcher may explain the question quite fully. The interviewer decides what questions to ask from moment to moment and frames the questions on the basis of the information volunteered by the informant.

The interview

Might begin with the interviewer saying: "I'd like to hear your views on _________".

When the flow of ideas in answer to that first question comes to an end the researcher may ask further questions to obtain clarification of some points

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Unstructured Interviews

Relatively natural conversation produces:

richer, fuller more genuine, more realistic information on interviewee's own terms;

enables capture of respondent's construction or unique perspective (interviewees can talk in their own terms)

not constrained by fixed-answer questions which produce rather narrow information.

Interview questions can be adapted to context, interviewee's style and thoughts, and the general flow of answers.

Interviewer is allowing the respondent's answers to influence the questioning process.

Much more flexible approach to interviewing

Relaxed, more informed and involved respondent.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Unstructured Interviews – Strengths

Not standardized., differences in procedure could make data comparison less fair and reliable. Difficulties in analysis of wide variety of qualitative information.

May not be generalisable, and are not amenable to statistical analysis to test hypotheses

Are costly in time, both for participants and researcher, and therefore may have to be limited in number undertaken during a study;

Interviewers may lack some of the skills necessary to conduct interviews successfully - should be able to make an interview seem natural, be sensitive to non-verbal cues, and they have well-developed listening skills.

May be subject to biases (invalidity and unreliability), both because participants may not tell the truth or may hide aspects of their experiences, and because the interviewer may have an unintended influence on what participants say.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Unstructured Interviews – Limitations

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Semi-structured Interviews

Semi-structured interviews:

combine the advantages of structured and unstructured interviews

still follow the same order of presentation and the same wording for the main questions in the interview schedule.

Allow the interviewer the freedom to elaborate on the original response or to follow a line of inquiry introduced by the interviewee.

An example would be:

Interviewer: “Has changes in government policy changed your work?"

Interviewee: "Absolutely! The workload has increased for a start."

Interviewer: "In what way has it increased?"

Different kinds of questions can be used to expand answers and to discuss some topics in more detail

Descriptive questions:

prompt the respondent to give a general account of ‘what happened’ or ‘what it feels like to..’, anecdotes, life histories etc.

Structural questions:

prompt respondent to identify structures and meanings to use to make sense of the world (e.g. what does it mean to your life to suffer from AIDS?)

Contrast questions:

allows the respondent to make comparisons between events and experiences (e.g. Did you prefer being in that company or the other?)

Evaluative questions:

are about the respondent’s feelings about someone or something. (E.g. did you feel afraid when the HIV test was taken?)

Semi structured interviews tend to work well when the interviewer has already identified a number of aspects he wants to be sure of addressing.

The interviewer can decide in advance what areas to cover but is open and receptive to unexpected information from the interviewee.

This can be particularly important if a limited time is available for each interview and the interviewer wants to be sure that the "key issues" will be covered.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Semi-structured Interviews – Conditions for Usage

The semi-structured interview has the advantages of the a structural approach (the form and direction of the questioning is determined in advance), but more flexibility in the interview allows the interviewer to select aspects of the discourse to follow up.

Richer and thicker data is obtained by semi-structured interviews

Explanations of wording can be offered when required.

Allows for analysis in a variety of ways because it is compatible with many methods of data analysis (discourse analysis, grounded theory etc.)

Easier to arrange than other forms of data collection (fewer logistical difficulties to arrange a series of semi-structured interviews with a small number of participants than to design a longitudinal study)

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Semi-structured Interviews – Strengths

The advantages of the semi-structured interview, are finely balanced against disadvantages of weak reliability.

Still places limits on what is asked and expected of the researchers.

Still not fully conversational and therefore might only be appropriate in market research rather then trying to glean information about a personal or traumatic event.

Data analysis is time consuming

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Semi-structured Interviews – Limitations

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews One-to-One Interviews

This is the most common method of interview.

An interview conducted by one person to another. The interviewer will sit down with the participant and try and build a relationship through the course of the interview.

Addresses the concerns of focus group situations.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews One-to-One Interviews

In general, one-to-one interviews allows a relationship to be built between interviewer and participant. This permits the interviewer to establish a good rapport with the respondent. T his may allow:

the interviewer to collect richer data.

Participants to divulge personal information.

Richer data as only one person is responding.

Recording and transcription of data, however, is usually relatively straightforward.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews One-to-One Interviews – Advantages

If a rapport cannot be established, then the quality of data will be severely diminished.

Difficult to conduct well - Good interviewers are able to make an interview seem natural, they are sensitive to non-verbal cues, and they have well-developed listening skills.

Researcher has to keep their subjectivity in check or report/reflect on it accurately

Time consuming and expensive.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews One-to-One Interviews – Limitations

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Conversational Interviews

A conversational interview takes the form of a discussion (no predetermined set of questions).

It is loosely guided by the interviewer but also allows the participant free range in the general direction that the conversation takes.

Gives maximum flexibility to be able to pursue questioning in whatever direction appears to be appropriate.

The participant is encouraged to do most of the talking.

This interview style is chosen by the interviewer mainly because they can get more information from people because they tend to be more honest and open because it is a relaxed atmosphere.

Requires an interviewer knowledgeable and experienced in the content area and strong in interpersonal skills, since he or she will have considerable discretion in directing the interview.

Can be used in a wide range of settings, but often used in humanistic based therapy interviews.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Conversational Interviews

Conversational interview is highly individualized and relevant to the individual.

Conversational interviews are useful in that they are a more natural way of gaining data from participants and have a greater ecological validity than more formal interviews.

Likely to produce information or insights that the interviewer could not have anticipated.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Conversational Interviews – Strengths

Not standardized.

Since different information is collected from different people, they do tend to present more material that may not be relevant to the researchers’ aims. This kind of interview is not systematic or comprehensive, and it can be very difficult and time-consuming to analyse the data

Participant can take control of the interview if the researcher does not have proper training or experience.

Candidates may also question ethics of the conversational approach.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Conversational Interviews – Limitations

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Small (Focus) Group Interviews

Small group interviews usually involve a limited number of participants in one session and are often focused upon a topic.

Focus groups can be:

homogenous (share features) or heterogeneous (are different)

pre-existing (friends or colleagues) or new

Focus groups are further characterized by the presence of a moderator and the use of a discussion guide.

The moderator should stimulate discussion among group members - encouraged participants to express views on each topic as well / respond the other participants.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Small (Focus) Group Interviews

The recommended size of a group is of 6 – 10 people.

Smaller than this limits the amount of information gained.

More than this makes it difficult for everyone to participate.

Several focus groups should be run in any research project. It would be wrong to rely on the views of just one group.

The members of each focus group should have something in common, characteristics important to the topic of investigation.

Focus groups are usually specially pre formed groups.

Qualitative information (feelings, perceptions and opinions).

The researchers require a range of skills: groups skills in facilitating and moderating, listening, observing and analysing.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Small (Focus) Group Interviews - Characteristics

Small Group Interviews can be useful when:

the research aim is to produce data from several people who are often together in a common situation or task.

it is possible to identify a number of individuals who share a common factor

limited resources prevent more than a small number of interviews being undertaken.

Triangulation is desired in focus groups due to the large size of the groups, usually ranging from 6-10. Since such interviews are in large groups, observation of the participants could be helpful in understanding and evaluating his or her actions and replies

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Small (Focus) Group Interviews – Conditions for Usage

Small group interviews can encourage more openness and more free and complex information when respondents stimulate ideas from each other.

Relatively quick and convenient method to collect data from several individuals simultaneously

Researcher can ask for clarification

Provides a setting that is natural, so it can be argued that it has higher ecological validity than the one-to-one interview.

High face validity

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Small (Focus) Group Interviews – Advantages

The group may be subject to factors which will limit the insight gained.

the members may be reluctant to participate or not interact well with each other

the presence of others may inhibit some individuals.

A mood of “keeping your mouths shut” may infect some groups.

Recorded group interviews for groups is not easy - data collection and analysis is time consuming.

pre existing purpose of the group can lead to the group having a particular bias which limits their potential for providing information.

not appropriate for all research questions, e.g. – sensitive matters

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Small (Focus) Group Interviews – Limitations

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews E-mail and Telephone Interviews

Email interviews

may be used when conducting an interview in person, or contacting via telephone, is inappropriate due to location, schedule conflict, or different time zones.

Telephone interview:

Interviewers make phone calls to contact people

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews E-mail and Telephone Interviews

Shy or reserved participants may contribute more in an e-mail interview than a face-to-face interview.

E-mail allows interviews to be conducted economically in terms of time and cost

There is no need to transcribe the interview.

Standardisation and minimisation of researcher expectancies are more readily achieved than in face-to-face interviews.

The absence of non-verbal cues from the interviewer can be considered an advantage,

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews E-mail and Telephone Interviews - Advantages

While non–verbal information can be inserted by interviewees in the form of acronyms e.g. LOL and faces e.g. ;-) or :-( , these are neither spontaneous nor as varied as those discernable from face-to-face or telephone interviews.

Hesitations, pauses, changes in pitch, volume and speed of responses are all present in verbal but not in e-mail interviews.

Neither anonymity nor verification of identity can be assured.

The same absence of non–verbal cues from the interviewee reduces the quality of the data obtained.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews E-mail and Telephone Interviews - Limitations

Verbal protocols are particularly used in task analysis (for example, in problem solving, learning a new task such as using a computer or driving a police car in dense traffic), or obtaining feedback from a patient undertaking a new form of treatment.

“ Verbal protocols are a record of what people say when they are asked to think aloud as they perform a task. Their speech is recorded and later transcribed so that the mental processes that are reported can be analysed.”

Cohen, G (1989), Memory in the Real World

Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, Hillsdale

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Verbal Protocols

A verbal protocol is used to gather data about the thought processes taking place during the performance of a task. The thought processes are spoken aloud.

Examples include:

driving a rescue or pursuit vehicle - driving a fire engine in an emergency ,

defusing a mine or a bomb,

piloting a helicopter,

performing a surgical operation.

giving birth

refereeing a football match

The key is that the participant in this method needs to think aloud as the task is performed, and that the speech is recorded for subsequent analysis. Analysis should be concerned with identifying salient points or themes that emerge from analysis of the data, and this could include the use of content analysis.

Verbal protocols may also be used to verify a theory of problem solving by comparing the data obtained with simulations developed from the theory.

Verbal Protocols:

gives us access to complex internal thought processes that would otherwise be unavailable via interviews.

can highlight individual differences in thinking – very useful method to compare cognitive processes

usually have excellent ecological validity

We can be sure the participant is concentrating on the task we have asked them to perform

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Verbal Protocols - Advantages

Verbal Protocols are sometimes limited by the stress of the process that it seeks to interpret. Can you really interpret what you are feeling when concentrating on bomb disposal or giving birth?

When thinking aloud, we may not say everything that comes into our mind – there are some things not easy to put into words, and others we may be reluctant to express

It relies on using participants who are fairly articulate – and these may not be representative of all people

The act of thinking aloud changes the thought processes, so the data generated is unnatural

Participants may very well not include vital information in their protocol.

Participants need training and practice for them to be useful.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Verbal Protocols - Limitations

Analysis should focus on what statements are crucial for the action and identifying themes from what the participant says.

Should not focus entirely on non-verbal aspects of the transcript

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Verbal Protocols - Transcript

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Methods of Transcribing Recorded Interviews

Methods of transcribing recorded interviews include the:

Traditional Method

words only

Post-modern Method

Words plus volume

Pitch

Speed

Pauses

Facial expressions

Gestures and other non-verbal communication

Traditional Method

Interview is recorded electronically or on tape and the transcribed focusing on the words only.

Advantages

Quicker and easier then post-modern.

Good for market research where deeply held emotions are not being researched.

Disadvantages:

Doesn’t take into account participants subtle and often very important non-verbal cues such as; tone of voice, pauses, speech rate etc

Post-modern Method

Post-modern transcription involves the use of the data presented, whether or not the transcription is from audio or video tapes.

The transcription indicates:

the pauses and lengths of silences

audio responses that are not necessarily words but utterances such as sighs, ums and ahs.

The timbre, volume and speed of response may also be noted.

In video transcriptions body language should also be noted.

Post-modern Method

Advantages

Allows the full interview experience to be recorded rather then just the words.

Produces data rich and highly detailed analysis.

It enhances the validity of responses to questions.

For example skilled researchers may be able to interpret silence as an eloquent response to a specific question. Similarly, increased volume combined with a speedier response may convey anger or frustration.

Post-modern Method

Limitations

post-modern method may lead to a misinterpretation of responses, particularly when the researchers are beginners or do not understand the culture of the respondents being interviewed.

Difficult to maintain reliability across researchers.

Extremely time consuming.

Interviews has to be transcribed as soon as possible after the recording so the researcher’s perceptions are still fresh.

Can be distracting for the participant to have their non-verbal cues recorded during the interview.

Some people gesticulate/use sarcasm/become emotional/talk faster/avoid eye contact/are more lucid more then others. More than one interview would be conducted and time spent with the individual for their non-verbal cues to be assessed and interpreted.

Candidates should be aware that ethical considerations are important at all stages of the interview process - before, during and after the interview. A prepared statement should be read to each interviewee just prior to the interview, that indicates his/her rights in the interview situation including

the reason for the interview (e.g. informed consent)

the right to withdraw at any time

confidentiality and anonymity

the right to alter the transcript or recordings produced during the interview.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Ethics in Interviews

Before the Interview

interviewer needs ensuring that none of the questions contain material that is ethically doubtful. This could extend to such matters as gender, age, ethnicity, religion and several other issues.

During the Interview

the interviewee also needs to be aware of his or her rights in terms of confidentiality, anonymity and the right to withdraw at any time from the interview.

After the Interview

the interviewee should be offered the right to hear the recorded interview and to read the transcript and to make any alterations that are deemed necessary and should be sent any research findings that arise from the investigation.

Qualitative Research Methods Interviews Ethics in Interviews

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys

Large-scale and small-scale surveys

Identification and representativeness of target population

Techniques of sampling from target population

Use of a Likert scale

A survey is a research method used to collect data, which involves asking participants to respond to a set of questions, either;

by mail, telephone or the internet (e-mails)

face-to-face interviews, for example, in the street or at transport terminals.

The survey is often, but not exclusively, conducted by using questionnaires; a printed form with questions of all sorts, often it is intended to be answered by many people.

Strengths

Survey data can be subjected to statistical analysis

Surveys have internal and external validity

A survey which is based on some form of random sampling technique will produce a sample which is representative of the particular population under study and will produce findings which may be generalised to the wider population.

Surveys are efficient

Because surveys can use a random sampling technique to recruit participants, relatively small sample sizes can be used to generate findings which can be used to draw conclusions about the whole population. They are thus a very cost-effective way of finding out what people do, think and want.

Strengths

Surveys can cover geographically spread samples

Surveys can be undertaken using a wide range of techniques including postal questionnaires and telephone interviews. This means that participants who are widely dispersed can be accessed and included in the sample.

Surveys are flexible

Surveys can easily be combined with other methods (Triangulation). For example, you might also use focus groups, or in-depth interviews.

Limitations

Respondents may not understand questions

Experimenter expectancies and participant expectancies

Surveys are not so good at explaining why people think or act as they do

Surveys can tell us how many people behave in a certain way, but they may be limited in the information they can provide as to why this is so (although asking open-ended questions can allow you to find out more).

According to Dyer (1995), there are four main types of survey:

one-shot survey

before–after design

two-groups controlled comparison design

two-groups before–after design

Information is obtained from a single sample at a given point in time.

Strengths

is the simplest

Limitations

the least informative type of survey

cannot compare the findings from our sample against those of other groups

can only describe what we have found to be the case in the sample we tested.

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys One-Shot Surveys

data is collected from a single sample on two occasions, normally some major event or experience intervenes between the first and second data collections, e.g. marriage

Strengths

The two set of results can be compared, and if they differed significantly, the argument could be advanced that the difference was due to the intervening event

Limitations

The validity of this line of reasoning depends on being able to show that only the intervening event could have influenced a second set of results, and this may be extremely difficult to arrange in a survey.

Problems associated with the repeated measures design

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Before-After Design

two similar groups of participants, one of which is exposed to some treatment before data collection, whereas the other is not.

For example, attitudes towards the opposite sex could be assessed in those who have (or have not) recently experienced the breakdown of a relationship.

Strengths

Avoids the problems associated with the repeated measures design (before-after design)

Limitations

requires the assumption that the two groups had the same attitudes before the treatment occurred, and we cannot be sure that that assumption is justified.

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Two-Groups Controlled Comparison

Two samples or groups are tested for the first time, then one group is exposed to some treatment, and finally both groups are tested for a second time.

Dyer (1995) gave as an imaginary example:

Participants are allocated at random to two groups

Attitudes of all towards Third World issues are assessed.

One group is exposed to TV commercial focusing on the need to provide economic aid to Third World countries.

Attitudes of both groups towards Third World countries is assessed.

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Two-Groups Before-After Surveys

Strengths

is more reliable and easier to interpret

Limitations

the most complicated one to use

there is still an assumption that individual differences are controlled for - the two groups had the same attitudes before the treatment occurred

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Two-Groups Before-After Surveys

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Large Scale Surveys

answered normally by at least a thousand people

Examples of a large scale survey includes:

national survey of patients’ knowledge of the causes of heart disease.

Strengths

Due to the larger number of participants, there is a greater chance of the sample being representative of the population, therefore you have more confidence in generalising results to the population

Limitations

Problems that are too complex for respondents to understand will not be amenable to a large scale survey

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Large Scale Surveys

The main reason for a choice of a small scale survey is to obtain representative responses from a sample of people whose views reflect those of the target population.

Small scale may be reckoned to be fewer than 1,000 people, although this number is flexible.

It is not the psychological question itself that is small but rather the number of respondents involved.

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Small Scale Survey

Examples of small scale surveys include:

patients who show similar dysfunctional behaviour

customer choice in purchasing goods

choice of schooling where this is feasible

attitudes to local policies, sports, or entertainment.

Strengths

relatively economical

Limitations

its limited size may throw some doubt upon its representative quality.

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Small Scale Survey

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Identification and Representativeness of Target Population

The aim of all survey research is to obtain information about some specified population. The critical factor in the survey method is the validity of the generalisations. That is, to what extent is the sample truly representative of the target population.

Target Population

the target group (the group of interest for the researcher)

Sample

is the group of individuals, who are selected from within a larger population by means of a sampling procedure

It is important in any survey study to ensure that the sample selected is as representative of the target population as possible.

The representativeness of a survey is entirely dependent upon the accuracy of the sampling frame used. Sometimes it is not possible to identify an accurate or up-to-date sampling frame.

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Identification and Representativeness of Target Population

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Techniques of Sampling from Target Population

A problem that applies to nearly all sampling methods is that of non-responding

Random sampling is usually not an appropriate means for the survey research method.

The most appropriate techniques of sampling from target population for the survey research method include:

stratified sampling,

purposive sampling

snowball sampling

convenience or opportunity sampling (only when all other sampling methods are not feasible)

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Techniques of Sampling from Target Population

Stratified Sampling Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Techniques of Sampling from Target Population

Stratified sampling procedures involves:

Dividing the population to be studied into subgroups ( strata - usually characteristics such as age, income, ethnic background, religion, sex, IQ scores, etc)

then

Selecting a separate sample from each subgroup in the same proportion as the subgroups occur in the population.

Example :

If a population comprises 70% boys and 30% girls, the stratified sample will comprise 70% boys and 30% girls.

Strengths

A deliberate effort is made to identify the characteristics of a sample most important for it to be representative of the population.

Weaknesses

Very time consuming and difficult to carry out effectively since a lot of calculations are involved

it is often hard to know which sub-groups to identify. It is a waste of time and effort if we use characteristics (e.g. gender) that are of no relevance to the study. What is more troublesome is if we fail to identify sub-groups on the basis of some characteristic which is actually highly relevant

Stratified Sampling Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Techniques of Sampling from Target Population

Purposive Sampling Techniques of Sampling from Target Population Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys

The researcher actively selects a particular group of people to answer the research question, rather than a simple demographic stratification.

Participants are chosen on the basis of:

The aim of the study

Existing knowledge in the field, e.g. the researcher's practical knowledge of the research area, the available literature and evidence from the study itself.

Particular characteristics (variables) that might influence an individual's contribution to explore the research topic. For example:

Socioeconomic, specific experiences, occupation, and social roles

Strengths

Useful in situations where the researcher needs to obtain a sample quickly to investigate an urgent problem.

May be the only option, if the desired population for the study is rare or difficult to locate.

researchers recognize that some informants are 'richer' than others and that these people are more likely to provide insight and understanding for the researcher.

Choosing someone at random to answer a qualitative question would be analogous to randomly asking a passer-by how to repair a broken down car.

Weaknesses

Purposive Sampling Techniques of Sampling from Target Population Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys

relies on referrals – the researcher simply asks participants in the study if they know other potential participants – one participant recruits another.

Strengths

It is cost efficient – do not have to use expensive or time consuming techniques to locate participants

Can be used for hidden populations or populations that might otherwise be difficult to access (e.g. sex workers, drug users, victims of domestic violence etc).

Weaknesses

Confidentiality concerns, because the participants know the identity of the other participants

Snowball Sampling Techniques of Sampling from Target Population Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys

Convenience or Opportunity Sampling Techniques of Sampling from Target Population Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys

This is the least rigorous sampling method which involves the selection of the most accessible participants (convenient) or participants who just happen to be about at the time of the investigation (opportunistic).

There is an element of convenience sampling in many qualitative studies, but a more thoughtful approach to selection of a sample is usually justified.

Strengths

It is the least costly to the researcher, in terms of time, effort and money

Weaknesses

it has the severe disadvantage that the participants may be nothing like a representative sample.

Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Use of a Likert Scale

Likert was an early researcher in the study and measurement of attitudes.

He showed social psychologists how to measure attitudes by first providing a clear statement about an attitude topic, and then asking the degree to which participants approve or disapprove of the statement.

For example, when measuring the attitudes of a group of elderly Australians, Warburton and Terry (2000) presented statements such as: ‘Most people who are important to me do volunteer work.’ Participants then indicated their level of agreement or disagreement with the statement.

A Likert-type scale is shown in below. This is an example of a five-fold Likert scale. There is a mid-point that allows participants to be indifferent.

A another example of a Likert-type scale is shown in below. Note that there is no mid-point.

In the final example of a Likert-type scale, a seven-fold Likert scale is shown. This also allows participants to be indifferent by having a mid-point that.

SA = Strongly agree D = Disagree N = Neither agree nor disagree

A = Agree SD = Strongly disagree

The use of illegal drugs is a major social problem in Australia today.

There should be no restrictions on using illegal drugs as long as the individual using them does not harm anyone else.

Laws should be strictly enforced regarding the use of illegal drugs.

In the privacy of their own homes, individuals should be allowed to use any illegal drug they desire.

Measuring Attitudes Towards Illegal Drugs Qualitative Research Methods Questionnaires/Surveys Use of a Likert Scale

Strengths

easy to develop for particular purposes, that is, can determine which items are important to the sample population

they generate numerical data, which can easily be treated statistically and summarised across a sample.

Limitations

the combination of statements / cumulative scores are difficult to interpret

issues of validity and reliability can arise.

Validity

quality of a measure relating to whether it measures what it is intended to measure. There are four types of validity relating to measurements of attitude.

Overall, if a researcher’s measures are not valid, then they have no value.

Reliability

quality of a measure relating to its relative consistency in measurement, such as between different measurement times and they must be consistent with themselves.

Internal reliability:

An individual’s responses should be related to each other. For example, does the person give all questions about his or her attitudes approximately the same rating?

Test–retest reliability:

If we measure attitudes on a Monday, then the individual’s responses should be the same when we measure the attitudes again on Wednesday.

Overall, if our measures are not reliable, then we cannot say what we have measured is real.

Qualitative Research Methods Observation

Participant observation (the investigator is involved in the study as an active participant)

Non-participant observation (the investigator only observes the behaviour of the participants)

Methods of recording data, including time, event and point sampling

Qualitative Research Methods Observation

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Participant Observation

Usually the term ‘participant observation’ refers to an observer who is a complete participant who conceals the role of observer from the group members.

Characteristics of participant observation research:

In participant research the researcher plays a dual role - both as participant and observer.

Participant observation research is unstructured. The researcher is prepared to collect any and all data which may seem to be relevant. No decision is made about what data to collect before entering the field.

Participant observation focuses on social processes and the interaction between people. The research is concerned with on going events, and the meanings which these happenings may have for those involved.

Participant observation research is primarily descriptive. The results of the research consist of descriptions of events rather than quantitative data.

Dyer (1995) discussed three stages that are involved in carrying out a participant observation study:

Entering the field:

The first task is to gain access to the information which the field contains, so that data collection can begin.

Being in the field:

Once in the field the researcher participates in the on-going social activity of the group, and can begin to record observations.

Leaving the field:

The researcher extricates herself from the network of relationships which have been formed during the course of the research.

Loftland (1976) suggested six key categories of information in participant research

acts (short actions);

activities (actions taking up at least several days);

meanings (participants’ explanations for their actions);

participation (the various roles participants play);

relationships among the group members; and

settings (the situations in which the group members find themselves).

Strengths

Allows for insight into context, relationships, behaviour

Combines the subjective participant perspective with the objective participant perspective

Provides very detailed and in depth knowledge of a topic, which cannot be gained by other methods,

One of the best methods to avoid researcher bias because the researchers seek to understand how and why the social processes are the way they are, instead of imposing their own reality on the phenomenon

Provides a holistic interpretation of a topic, because the researcher takes into account as many aspects as possible of that particular group of people.

Limitations

Time consuming and demanding – the researcher needs to be physically present and try to live the life of the people he or she is studying

Difficult to record data promptly and objectively:

documentation relies on memory, personal discipline, and diligence of researcher

Requires conscious effort at objectivity because method is inherently subjective. In participant observation there is the delicate balance between involvement and detatchment.

There are ethical issues raised in participant observation, especially when the observer is concealed.

There is also a tendency over long term covert membership of a group to ‘go native’ and lose the objectivity of observation.

Recording of events is also problematic especially where the observer is known and Hawthorne effects may begin to operate.

Other aspects should be considered that could include ethics, danger, demeaning of participants or justification of deceit.

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Participant Observation – Ethics

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Non-Participant Observation

in non-participation (or pure) observation, the researcher's activities are devoted to watching and recording behaviour in a way which does not involve any kind of interaction with those being observed

the participant may be unaware that they are being observed, therefore assuming that the observed behaviour has been unaffected by the process of collecting data.

aspects that should be considered include ethics, danger, demeaning of participants and justification of deceit.

Most non-participant observation research starts with experimental hypothesis, then devising the behavioural categories that are going to be observed. The categories should possess the following features:

Behaviour that qualify for each category should be defined in a precise and objective way so there is as little ambiguity.

Categories need to be comprehensive, all behaviour relevant to the experimental hypothesis should be included.

The categories should be usable in the context of the study. For example, a researcher studying the reactions of drivers stuck in traffic jams might include various categories of facial expression. This is only sensible provided that the observer is going to be able to see drivers’ facial expressions clearly from his or her viewing position.

Strengths

Ecological Validity – the collection of data takes place in a natural environment and it is assumed that participants behave in natural ways (in contrast to research laboratories)

Can be used to collect data in cases where it would be impossible or unethical to do so otherwise – for example, research on people with Alzheimers disease.

Limitations

Participant and Research expectancies

Ethical considerations

participant expectancies frequently occur when non-participant observation is used as the research method.

participant expectancies occur whenever audiences are present. For example

performance on simple tasks tends to increase in the presence of an audience.

performance on cognitively demanding tasks, e.g. solving a complex mathematical problem, tends to decrease in the presence of an audience.

Participant expectancies may make the resulting findings invalid because the participant’s behaviour is probably untypical of his or her normal behaviour. Such behaviour lacks ecological validity.

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Non-Participant Observation - Participant Expectancies

Researcher expectancies happen when the observer comes to the investigation with an inbuilt bias that influences his/her interpretation of the data.

Biased researchers are almost certain to take a less than objective view of the behaviour that they investigate - this means that the research findings are likely to go in a predetermined direction.

The operation of researcher expectancies may make the resulting findings invalid.

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Non-Participant Observation - Researcher Expectancies

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Methods of Recording Data

Sometimes observations are made continuously where the observers record everything that happens in detail – perhaps with a video camera.

Sometimes researchers use a sampling technique as it may be difficult to record everything. Sampling techniques include:

Time sampling - Observations may be made at regular time intervals and coded

Event sampling - Keep a tally chart of each time a type of behaviour occurs

Point sampling - Focus on one individual at a time for set period of time

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Methods of Recording Data

Time sampling occurs when the researcher decides on a time say 5 seconds and then records what behaviour is occurring a at that time.

Advantages

Reduces the amount of time spent in observation and thus may increase accuracy.

Limitations

A problem with time sampling is that some behaviours will be missed if random time samples are not taken across the day and therefore the observation may not be representative.

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Methods of Recording Data – Time Sampling

Event sampling consists of the researcher recoding an event every time it happens. For example, ticking a box every time somebody picks their nose.

Advantages

Limits the behaviours observed, thus reducing the chance that the behaviour of interest will be missed.

Limitations

Although behaviours should not be missed as in time sampling, if too many observations happen at once it may be difficult to record everything.

Other important behaviours may be missed.

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Methods of Recording Data – Event Sampling

Point sampling consists of the behaviour of just one individual in a group at a time being recorded.

Advantages

Increases the accuracy of observation

Increases the number of behaviours that can be recorded

Limitations

May miss behaviour in others that is important for an understanding of the individual

Qualitative Research Methods Observation Methods of Recording Data – Point Sampling

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis

Content analysis is a process that attempts to identify important themes and patterns that occur in the data under consideration. This is usually accomplished by bringing together examples of the same ideas, issues or concepts, and then placing these concepts into coherent categories

Content analysis has been defined as a systematic, replicable technique for compressing many words of text into fewer content categories based on explicit rules of coding (Weber, 1990).

Content analysis enables researchers to sift through large volumes of data with relative ease in a systematic fashion (GAO, 1996).

Students are expected to be able to explain how to apply the techniques of content analysis to:

Printed material

analyse the content of children’s reading books

look at reports of football hooliganism in the media

Television, video and film

assesses how female characters have been portrayed over time in Bond films

Advertising

Content analysis of gender differences in children's advertising

Internet and e-mail

Analysing students‘ conversations in chat rooms

Content analysis consists of establishing a number of different content categories, and counting up the number of times items relevant to each of them occurs in a particular set of data.

Content analysis is really a way of using quantitative data to describe qualitative data, that is, it is a way of converting qualitative information into quantitative data.

Describing qualitative information using numbers opens the way for a researcher to perform additional statistical tests on the material - the most commonly used one is chi-square, because a content analysis gives us nominal data.

What makes the technique particularly rich and meaningful is its reliance on coding and categorizing of the data. The basics of categorizing can be summed up in these quotes:

"A category is a group of words with similar meaning or connotations“

(Weber, 1990, p. 37).

"Categories must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive “

(GAO, 1996, p. 20).

Mutually exclusive categories exist when no unit falls between two data points, and each unit is represented by only one data point.

Mutually exhaustive categories is met when the data language represents all recording units without exception.

Weber (1990) notes: "To make valid inferences from the text, it is important that the classification procedure be reliable in the sense of being consistent: Different people should code the same text in the same way" (p. 12).

As Weber further notes, "reliability problems usually grow out of the ambiguity of word meanings, category definitions, or other coding rules" (p. 15).

Reliability may be discussed in the following terms:

Stability , or intra-rater reliability. Can the same coder get the same results try after try?

Reproducibility , or inter-rater reliability. Do coding schemes lead to the same text being coded in the same category by different people?

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis Reliability

In qualitative research, validation takes the form of triangulation. Triangulation lends credibility to the findings by incorporating multiple sources of data, methods, investigators, or theories (Erlandson, Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993).

Shapiro & Markoff (1997) assert that content analysis itself is only valid and meaningful to the extent that the results are related to other measures.

For example, in order to cross-validate the findings from a content analysis, interviews, surveys or observations could also be utilised.

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis Validity

Content analysis of printed material may be applied to:

testing the authenticity of documents

analysing the behavioural patterns of people from the past

The process of analysis of printed material usually begins with annotations in the margins, categorized under appropriate headings.

Words should be selected either by interpreting the writer’s intent or by a external interpretation of the writing.

Several readings of the printed material are required for a thorough analysis, and the categories should be meaningful.

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis Printed Material

The analysis of data uses an interpretive approach that is not based on a theory. Rather the qualitative approach should focus on raw data themes or coding of the printed material themes - then the theory can be induced. An interpretation of the themes is a necessary part of the process of analysis.

Limited credit is given to students who claim that it is solely the number of times, or frequency, that words or phrases are used that determines what is important. These mechanical methods have generally been dismissed as belonging to a quantitative, positivistic approach that has little to do with the interpretative approach that characterises good qualitative research. The continual use of the theme can of course denote importance but it is not frequency alone that determines key themes. Once the raw data has been identified, usually by more than one researcher, then the first, second and third highest order themes are identified in logical process.

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis Printed Material

Qualitative content analysis applies to analysing the themes, terms or images used in television advertising in terms of their interpretation from the viewers’ perspective.

An analysis of the themes based on feelings or interpretations is often presented diagrammatically. There is no one correct way of presenting the analysis or findings from qualitative content analysis, rather there is a choice from different viewpoints. The clarity and explicitness of the methodology employed reflects the trustworthiness of the investigation.

Evaluation may include reference to bias that may be exhibited by some researchers. Although qualitative researchers may claim to interpret TV advertising by empathizing with the actor or director, in reality this cannot happen since we all bring our own emotional “baggage” to our own interpretation. When data is coded, categorized or put into themes, a similar deductive approach is used.

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis Television, Video and Film

Hacker and Swan (1992) focused on different aspect of campaign strategy in forms of television advertisements paid for by political parties as a means of ‘selling’ their candidate.

The two researchers videotaped 17 campaign advertisements in autumn 1988 and randomly selected five from each campaign for analysis.

14 different message appeal categories such as positive or negative trait, nationalism, family, humanitarian interest, mission statement, or fear were coded for.

The results showed a difference in the sense that the Bush campaign used significantly more positive messages than the Dukakis campaign. One other difference was that the Dukakis’ campaign emphasised the visionary appeal of the candidate.

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis Advertising

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis Advertising 0 0.12 Negative issue statement 0.16 0 Positive issue statement 0.24 0.36 Fear 0.04 0.08 Nationalism 0.96 0.20 Ideal vision statement* 0.76 0.52 Negative trait 0.72 1.80 Positive trait* 0.08 0 Humanitarian interest 0.08 0 Family 0.20 0.16 Rhetorical question 0.52 0.72 Negative record 0.32 2.28 Positive record* 0.56 2.0 Negative Association 0 0.40 Postive Association Dukakis Bush

Email interviews enable the researcher to download both questions and answers on to hard copy. The process of analysis starts with a numbering of each line that is produced by the respondent. This process is to identify particular quotations and to facilitate future links in the data. Normally the researchers then read the transcript several times to identify raw data words or phrases that appear to be important to the respondent.

It is not solely the number of times, or frequency, that words or phrases are used that determines what is important. The continual use of the theme can of course denote importance but it is not frequency alone that determines key themes. Once the raw data has been identified, usually by more than one researcher, then the first, second and third highest order themes are identified in logical process.

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis Internet and E-mail

The content analysis itself is interpretative and it should be recognised that there is no one correct interpretation of data. It is relevant that researchers rely heavily on the transparency of their content analysis process by making transcripts. Implications of confidentiality and anonymity should certainly be observed throughout the process. Astute candidates should be aware of these points and consistency in this regard should lead to very high marks.

Qualitative Research Methods Content Analysis Internet and E-mail

Qualitative Research Methods Case Study

Students are expected to know about the types of case study listed below, as well as related concepts including data-collection methods and problems of generalization.

One individual

Small and large groups

Students are also expected to be able to understand the following concepts related to case studies.

Collecting data, including self-reports, observed data and a range of other techniques.

Issues of generalizing from an individual case study. Some case studies are chosen to be representative of a target population (extrinsic/instrumental case studies) and are therefore more generalisable; others are chosen because the case is especially unusual or interesting (intrinsic case studies) and these are less generalisable.

A case study is an in-depth descriptive study of the behaviour of an individual, a group (e.g. family), an organization, or an event.

Qualitative Research Methods Case Study The study of a particular social or cultural event, and the interpretations of that event by those participating in it. Event The study of a single organisation or company, and the way that people act within it. Organisation The study of a particular place, and the way that it is used or regarded by people. Location The study of a single distinctive set of people, such as a family or small group of friends. Group The study of one single individual, generally using several different research methods. Person

The main characteristics of a case study include:

A descriptive method

Quantitative data may be collected, but the main emphasis is always on the construction of verbal descriptions of behaviour or experience. .

Narrowly focused

Typically a case study offers a description of only a single individual, although it is also possible (but rarely done) to write case studies of groups.

Highly detailed

The descriptions which are achieved can be extremely detailed.

Combines objective and subjective data

The information collected in a case study can represent almost any combination of objective and subjective data.

Process-oriented

The case study method also enables the researcher to explore and describe the nature of processes which occur over time. The case study enables on-going processes, which continue over time, to be investigated and described in some detail.

The case study is not in itself a methodology, but a collection of methods that the researcher uses to investigate an entity such as a single person, a team, and event or an organization.

A variety of data collection techniques can be used in case studies, including;

direct observation of behaviour,

interviews,

psychological testing (e.g. IQ, memory, personality),

examination of past records (e.g. medical, psychiatry, criminal)

A case study is completed over a time span of several days, weeks or months.

Strengths

Stimulating new research.

A case study can sometimes highlight extraordinary behaviour, which can stimulate new research.

Contradicting established theory.

Case studies may sometimes contradict established psychological theories.

Giving new insight into phenomena or experience.

Because case studies are so rich in information, they can give insight into phenomena, which we could not gain in any other way.

Permitting investigation of otherwise inaccessible situations.

case study gives psychological researchers the possibility to investigate cases, which could not possibly be engineered in research laboratories.

Limitations

Replication not possible.

Uniqueness of data means that they are valid for only one person.

Researcher bias.

Both the collection the interpretation of data.

Memory distortions.

The heavy reliance on memory when reconstructing the case history means that the information about past experiences and events may be notoriously subject to distortion.

Not possible to replicate findings.

Serious problems in generalising the results of a unique individual to other people because the findings may not be representative of any particular population.

Data from the case study could not necessarily be generalised to others nor would it be desirable to do so.

However, it would be incorrect to suggest that generalizing from an individual case study is not possible, since the general is always present in the particular (Arksey and Knight 1999)

What psychologists do eventually generalize will have been identified in a single case on a previous occasion. This is particularly true for medically-oriented psychology but it also applies to many other facets of the discipline.

e.g. a case study of a single high school (Ball 1981) shows that some processes are at work that may or may not be at work in all high schools, but are likely to be present in many.

Where generalisation is required - using several individual case studies may reveal similar characteristics. The resulting analytic generalizations can be used to confirm or challenge assumptions made by existing theory.

Qualitative Research Methods Case Study Generalisability

Intrinsic case studies are those studied for their own sake, because they are interesting in themselves

there is no intention to generalize the findings.

Sufficient intrinsic merit for the narrative to speak for itself - requires no further justification.

Extrinsic case studies may be chosen for their representativeness and therefore the findings may be generalized to similar situations.

Qualitative Research Methods Case Study Generalisability

Qualitative Research Methods Triangulation

Triangulation is the application and combination of several research methodologies in the study of the same phenomenon.

“ The use of evidence from different sources, of different methods of collecting data and of different investigators, where feasible, are all triangulation techniques which enhance credibility.”

Robson, C (1998), Real World Research , Blackwell, Oxford

Denzin (1988) described four types of triangulation.

Data triangulation.

Observer triangulation.

Methodological triangulation.

Theory triangulation.

Data triangulation.

This involves conducting research at different times, in different locations, and using different groups of subjects.

Observer triangulation.

This is when more than one observer is used in a study. One example is the use of independent raters and the calculation of inter-rater reliability in research.

Methodological triangulation.

Methodological triangulation involves the use of two more qualitative methods including observation, interviews, case studies, questionnaires and surveys.

Theory triangulation.

This is when more than one perspective is used before coming to a conclusion.

For example, the General Aggression Model (GAM) uses social learning theory together with other relevant theories on aggression to create a complex causation model of human aggression. Complex causation is more realistic in explaining human behaviour than reductionist theories. It is often hard for one theory to stand alone as an explanation for human behaviour.

Denzin (1970) argues that by using multiple methods the weaknesses of some methods can be ameliorated by the strengths of others in order to present a more complete interpretation of findings. If the different methods result in similar findings then this was claimed to be evidence of validation of the findings.

Denzin and Lincoln’s more recent (2000) account of triangulation refers to it as a “…strategy that adds rigour, breadth, complexity, richness and depth to any enquiry”. This is a more valuable interpretation of triangulation.

Strengths Qualitative Research Methods Triangulation

Silverman (2006) suggests that different methods and theories cannot be merged and do not give rise to a single truth.

As Fielding and Fielding state: “rarely does the inaccuracy of one approach to the data complement the accuracies of another”.

More prosaically, the makers of single estate whiskies in Scotland sell their own specific brand of whisky for its own particular taste; its value is in the taste. By blending it with other whiskies, each of which may have its own high quality, it is likely that a whisky of inferior taste will be produced.

Weaknesses Qualitative Research Methods Triangulation

According to Rolfe (2006), credibility corresponds roughly to the concept of internal validity that is used in quantitative research. The term ‘trustworthiness’ may be a more appropriate word to use for qualitative research. Trustworthiness of research is established when the findings of the research reflect the meanings as they are described by the participants.

Triangulation is used in qualitative research to give more credence to its findings. Credibility can be supported as a general outcome of triangulation if separate methods, different ways of collecting data or interpreting it by using more than one researcher result in fairly close agreement.

Importance of Credibility Qualitative Research Methods Triangulation

It is recognized that to have a fuller picture, psychologists may choose to approach their data collection by using more than one method. To achieve this, psychologists can use triangulation to allow for a more credible interpretation of the data that has been collected.

For example, when studying aggression in humans, a psychologist may:

measure hormone levels

conduct an interview

observe behaviour over an extended period of time.

The measurement of hormones is quantitative, while the other two methods can be quantitative or qualitative. The measurement of hormones may give only a partial interpretation of aggression. However, the use of all three methods will give a more credible interpretation of what is happening in human aggression.

Against this are arguments that throw doubt on multi-tasking research methods since confounding of findings may occur which compound the errors that can be made.

But as Bloor (1997) points out, different methods can give rise to logical and practical difficulties where findings disagree to a degree that makes their direct comparison problematic.

For example, three or more types of triangulation being applied may miss a design flaw in the investigation, but their combined use may cloak this error in respectability.

Qualitative Research Methods Descriptive Statistics

Qualitative Research Methods Descriptive Statistics Graphical Techniques

Students are expected to be able to define, explain, use and apply the terms below:

Bar chart

Histogram

Line graph

Frequency polygon

Qualitative Research Methods Descriptive Statistics Graphical Techniques

Often in research, large amounts of data are collected.

A frequency distribution is a table wherein an entire range of scores is divided into a series of equally sized increments (or class intervals ), with the number of scores that fall into each class recorded.

Qualitative Research Methods Descriptive Statistics Graphical Techniques – Histogram

A histogram , or graph of a frequency distribution, is made by labelling class intervals on the horizontal ( x ) axis, and frequencies the number of scores in each class) on the vertical ( y ) axis.

Next, bars are drawn for each class interval, with the height of each bar determined by the number of scores in each class.

Qualitative Research Methods Descriptive Statistics Graphical Techniques – Histogram

A frequency polygon is a graph of a frequency distribution in which the number of scores falling in each class is plotted as points, with a line being drawn to connect the points.

Qualitative Research Methods Descriptive Statistics Graphical Techniques – Frequency Polygon

A bar chart shows how frequently a particular category of data occurs by representing the data using a series of discrete (separate) bars next to, but not touching one another.

Bar charts are commonly used to represent data that have discrete categories such as age groups and sex.

Qualitative Research Methods Descriptive Statistics Graphical Techniques – Bar Charts

A line graph is a pictorial representation that indicates the relationship between two factors, or two variables in an experiment.

The horizontal, or X, axis usually has the independent variable plotted on it, while the vertical, or Y, axis usually has the dependent variable plotted along it.

Qualitative Research Methods Descriptive Statistics Graphical Techniques – Line Graph