My master's thesis aimed to analyze the effectiveness of Norway’s political system in facilitating the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector. The objectives included identifying current measures in place to reduce emissions and their impact, evaluating Norway’s political system in this effort, and exploring the feasibility of reducing emissions further in the future.

1. IMPERIAL
COLLEGE
LONDON
Faculty
of
Natural
Sciences
CENTRE
FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL
POLICY
Successes,
Failures,
and
the
Road
to
2030
–
A
Study
of
Emissions
from
the
Norwegian
Transport
Sector
By
Rebecca
Linn
Haukland
Briedis
A
report
submitted
in
partial
fulfillment
of
the
requirements
for
the
MSc
Environmental
Technology
September
2015

2. 2
DECLARATION
OF
OWN
WORK
I
declare
that
this
thesis,
“Successes,
Failures
and
the
Road
to
2030
–
A
Study
of
Emissions
from
the
Norwegian
Transport
Sector”
is
entirely
my
own
work
and
that
where
any
material
could
be
construed
as
the
work
of
others,
it
is
fully
cited
and
referenced,
and/or
with
appropriate
acknowledgement
given.
Signature:.....................................................................................................
Name
of
student:
REBECCA
LINN
HAUKLAND
BRIEDIS
Name
of
supervisor:
ALEX
WALKER

3. 3
AUTHORISATION
TO
HOLD
ELECTRONIC
COPY
OF
MSc
THESIS
Thesis
title:
Successes,
Failures
and
the
Road
to
2030
–
A
Study
of
Emissions
from
the
Norwegian
Transport
Sector
Author:
Rebecca
Linn
Haukland
Briedis
I
hereby
assign
to
Imperial
College
London,
Centre
of
Environmental
Policy
the
right
to
hold
an
electronic
copy
of
the
thesis
identified
above
and
any
supplemental
tables,
illustrations,
appendices
or
other
information
submitted
therewith
(the
“thesis”)
in
all
forms
and
media,
effective
when
and
if
the
thesis
is
accepted
by
the
College.
This
authorisation
includes
the
right
to
adapt
the
presentation
of
the
thesis
abstract
for
use
in
conjunction
with
computer
systems
and
programs,
including
reproduction
or
publication
in
machine-­‐readable
form
and
incorporation
in
electronic
retrieval
systems.
Access
to
the
thesis
will
be
limited
to
ET
MSc
teaching
staff
and
students
and
this
can
be
extended
to
other
College
staff
and
students
by
permission
of
the
ET
MSc
Course
Directors/Examiners
Board.
Name
printed:
REBECCA
L.
H.
BRIEDIS
Signed:
__________________________
Date:
__________________________

4. 4
ABSTRACT
This
study
aims
to
analyze
the
effectiveness
of
Norway’s
political
system
in
facilitating
the
reduction
of
greenhouse
gas
emissions
from
the
transport
sector.
The
objectives
included
identifying
current
measures
in
place
to
reduce
emissions
and
their
impact,
evaluating
Norway’s
political
system
in
this
effort,
and
exploring
the
feasibility
of
reducing
emissions
further
in
the
future.
Such
a
study
is
important
because
it
highlights
issues
that
could
have
contributed
to
the
poor
progress
on
decreasing
emissions
to
date.
Without
a
firm
understanding
of
the
transport
sector,
and
its
overarching
components,
and
history,
emission
cuts
may
never
happen.
To
understand
how
emissions
can
be
reduced
in
the
future,
one
needs
to
understand
where
improvements
can
be
made,
and
what
mistakes
should
be
avoided.
The
research
approach
adopted
in
this
study
consisted
of
a
literature
review
and
one-­‐on-­‐
one
interviews
with
a
range
of
knowledgeable
experts
from
government,
industry,
and
citizen
action
groups.
Semi-­‐structured
interviews
were
carried
out
in
order
to
solicit
opinions
on
Norway’s
transport
sector.
The
findings
from
this
research
show
that
Norway’s
transport
emissions
have
been
flat
since
2007,
due
to
an
increasing
number
of
kilometers
driven
each
year,
just
balanced
by
a
decrease
in
the
average
emissions
level
per
kilometer.
The
chief
success
has
been
the
skyrocketing
sales
of
electric
vehicles.
The
market
is
booming
as
a
result
of
subsidies
rewarding
positive
behavior.
Freight,
on
the
other
hand,
has
been
recognized
as
a
problem-­‐area
for
many
years,
yet
improvements
are
still
few
and
far
between.
Freight
has
been
down-­‐prioritized
because
of
technical,
financial
and
commercial
challenges.
Holistic
thinking
has
been
missing
and
implemented
policies
and
measures
have
not
been
linked
together,
leading
to
many
inefficiencies.
There
is
an
observed
lack
of
willpower
from
the
political
system
in
many
areas.
The
policy-­‐makers
have
been
over
relying
on
the
influx
of
new
technologies,
sometimes
believing
that
they
are
the
only
option
available
for
cutting
emissions.
Collaboration
between
the
different
levels
of
government
has
been
lacking.
Future
development
is
likely
to
be
steered
by
individuals
and
businesses
from
a
bottom-­‐up
approach.
If
they
can
work
together
with
the
authorities,
where
the
top-­‐down
approach
meets
the
bottom-­‐up,
they
will
be
much
more
effective.
The
main
conclusions
drawn
from
this
research
are
1)
the
policy-­‐makers
have
made
praise-­‐worthy
achievements
in
reducing
emissions,
but
they
have
been
piecemeal,
and
lacking
big-­‐picture
integration,
2)
they
have
been
over
relying
on
technology
developments,
and
not
been
tough
enough
on
implementing
restrictive
measures,
and
3)
holistic
thinking
has
been
lacking
in
many
decisions
and
there
is
little
encouragement
for
all
levels
of
society
to
contribute.
This
study
recommends
a
strict
reinforcement
of
the
‘polluter
pays
principle’.
The
challenge
will
be
to
get
people
to
accept
these
changes
and
adapt
to
them.
There
needs
to
be
a
clear
path
between
targets
and
the
measures
and
policies
implemented.
Companies
and
individuals
should
take
a
leadership
role
in
a
bottom-­‐up
approach
by
investing
in
environmentally
friendly
solutions.

5. 5
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
......................................................................................................................
7
LIST
OF
FIGURES
..................................................................................................................................
8
CHAPTER
1:
INTRODUCTION
...........................................................................................................
9
1.1
BACKGROUND
.............................................................................................................................................
9
1.2
RESEARCH
FOCUS
...................................................................................................................................
10
1.3
OVERALL
RESEARCH
AIM
AND
INDIVIDUAL
RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
...........................
11
1.4
VALUE
OF
RESEARCH
............................................................................................................................
12
1.5
STRUCTURE
OUTLINE
...........................................................................................................................
12
CHAPTER
2:
BACKGROUND
INFORMATION
.............................................................................
15
2.1
CONFERENCE
OF
PARTIES
AND
THE
PARIS
NEGOTIATIONS
(COP
21)
..........................
16
2.2
NORWAY
AND
THE
EUROPEAN
COMMISSION
(EU)
–
THE
EEA
.........................................
16
2.3
NORWAY’S
INDCS
AT
COP
21
.............................................................................................................
17
2.4
THE
POLICY
CYCLE
AND
PAST
POLICY
DEVELOPMENTS
.....................................................
19
CHAPTER
3:
METHODOLOGY
........................................................................................................
22
3.1
INTRODUCTION
.......................................................................................................................................
22
3.2
RESEARCH
STRATEGY
..........................................................................................................................
22
3.3
DATA
COLLECTION
................................................................................................................................
23
3.4
FRAMEWORK
FOR
DATA
ANALYSIS
...............................................................................................
24
3.5
LIMITATIONS
AND
POTENTIAL
PROBLEMS
...............................................................................
24
3.6
DEFINITIONS
AND
EXCLUSIONS
......................................................................................................
25
CHAPTER
4:
LITERATURE
REVIEW
–
NORWAY’S
TRANSPORT
SECTOR
........................
26
4.1
INTRODUCTION
.......................................................................................................................................
26
4.2
PAST
AND
FUTURE
EMISSIONS
FROM
NORWAY’S
TRANSPORT
SECTOR
.....................
28
4.3
REFLEXIVE
GOVERNANCE
..................................................................................................................
32
4.4
THE
EU’S
INFLUENCE
ON
NORWAYS
TRANSPORT
SECTOR
................................................
35
4.5
IMPLEMENTED
MEASURES
IN
THE
TRANSPORT
SECTOR
...................................................
37
4.5.1
Automobiles
...........................................................................................................................................
37
4.5.2
Railway
Network
.................................................................................................................................
43
4.5.3
Public
Transport
and
Infrastructure
..........................................................................................
45
4.6
DISCUSSION
OF
EXISTING
POLICIES
...............................................................................................
46
4.7
PUBLISHED
REPORTS
ON
NORWAY’S
TRANSPORT
SECTOR
..............................................
49
4.7.1
Past
Achievements
in
Norway’s
Transport
Sector
................................................................
49
4.7.2
Suggestions
to
Further
Reduce
Emissions
from
Transport
in
the
Future
...................
50
CHAPTER
5:
EMPIRICAL
RESEARCH
FINDINGS
.......................................................................
53
5.1
INTRODUCTION
.......................................................................................................................................
53
5.1.1
The
Electric
Vehicle:
A
Success
Story?
........................................................................................
53
5.1.2
Freight:
A
Forgotten
Avenue?
........................................................................................................
54
5.2
PAST
ACHIEVEMENTS
IN
NORWAY’S
TRANSPORT
SECTOR
...............................................
55
5.2.1
Where
has
the
Focus
been?
.............................................................................................................
55
5.2.2
Has
the
Governing
System
Performed
Well
Enough?
..........................................................
61
5.3
FUTURE
EMISSION
REDUCTIONS
–
CAN
NORWAY
LEAN
BACK
AND
RELAX?
.............
63
5.3.1
Is
it
Easier
to
Implement
Policies
Today
than
it
was
5-­‐10
Years
Ago?
........................
63
5.3.2
Will
a
Bottom-­‐Up
Approach
Play
a
Large
Role
in
the
Future?
........................................
64
5.3.3
How
should
Norway
Move
Forward?
..........................................................................................
65
CHAPTER
6:
CONCLUSIONS
AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
.......................................................
71
6.1
INTRODUCTION
.......................................................................................................................................
71
6.2
SUMMARY
OF
FINDINGS
AND
CONCLUSIONS
............................................................................
71

6. 6
6.2.1
Research
Objective
1:
Identify
current
measures
in
place
to
reduce
emissions
and
their
impact.
......................................................................................................................................................
71
6.2.2
Research
Objective
2:
Evaluate
the
effectiveness
of
Norway’s
political
system
–
how
effective
have
they
been
in
reducing
emissions,
and
could
they
have
done
more?
..
72
6.2.3
Research
Objective
3:
Explore
the
feasibility
of
reducing
emissions
further
in
the
future
–
and
how
can
the
political
system
best
facilitate
it?
.......................................................
73
6.3
RECOMMENDATIONS
............................................................................................................................
74
CHAPTER
7:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
.........................................................................................................
76
CHAPTER
8:
APPENDIX
...................................................................................................................
83
8.1
INTERVIEWS
AND
INTERVIEW
QUESTIONS
...............................................................................
83

7. 7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First,
and
most
of
all,
I
would
like
to
thank
my
dad,
Nowell
Briedis,
for
his
invaluable
support
and
for
providing
me
with
unconditional
love
and
encouragement
throughout
this
project.
He
was
never
more
than
a
phone
call
away
and
would
always
assist
me
whenever
I
hit
a
wall,
or
found
myself
lost
in
the
middle
of
all
the
chaos.
With
admirable
strength,
he
has
stood
by
me
through
all
the
highs
and
lows
of
this
project,
and
it
would
never
have
turned
out
as
well
without
him.
I
am
particularly
grateful
for
the
assistance
given
by
my
supervisor,
Alex
Walker,
for
providing
enthusiastic
encouragement,
assistance,
guidance,
and
constructive
suggestions
during
the
planning
and
development
of
my
project
work.
I
would
like
to
express
my
deep
gratitude
to
those
individuals
who
took
valuable
time
out
of
their
day
to
impart
their
knowledge.
Their
contributions
to
this
project
have
been
invaluable
and
have
provided
me
with
a
thorough
understanding
of
Norway’s
transport
sector
and
all
of
its
components.
My
special
thanks
are
extended
to
Renée
van
Diemen
for
inspiring
me
both
inside
and
outside
the
library’s
four
walls.
Thank
you
for
helping
me
survive
the
stress
and
not
letting
me
give
up.
I
could
not
have
done
it
without
you.
You
da
bomb.
I
am
thankful
for
all
my
close
family
and
friends
who
put
their
faith
in
me
and
kept
on
urging
me
to
do
better.

8. 8
LIST
OF
FIGURES
FIGURE
1
-­‐
TOPOGRAPHIC
MAP
OF
NORWAY
INCLUDING
MAJOR
CITIES.
.............................................................................
15
FIGURE
2
-­‐
EMISSIONS
REDUCTIONS
IN
NORWAY
BY
SECTOR
WITH
A
GLOBAL
IMPLEMENTATION
OF
THE
2-­‐DEGREE
LIMIT
(MTCO2
2015-­‐2050).
THE
PERCENTAGE
SHARE
OF
TOTAL
EMISSIONS
REDUCTIONS
IN
2050.
MOST
CUTS
ARE
EXPECTED
TO
HAPPEN
IN
THE
TRANSPORT
SECTOR
..................................................................................
18
FIGURE
3
-­‐
TOTAL
EMISSIONS
OF
GREENHOUSE
GASES
IN
NORWAY
SINCE
1990
DIVIDED
BY
SOURCE
(SSB).
............
20
FIGURE
4
-­‐
DISTRIBUTION
OF
PASSENGER
TRANSPORT
METHODS
IN
NORWAY
IN
1960
AND
2011
(SSB).
...............
26
FIGURE
5
-­‐
EMISSIONS
OF
GREENHOUSE
GASES
(PER
CENT)
FROM
ROAD
TRANSPORT
DIVIDED
INTO
GROUPS
OF
VEHICLES,
2011
(SSB).
..................................................................................................................................................
27
FIGURE
6
-­‐
NUMBER
OF
PASSENGER
KILOMETERS
TRAVELLED
PER
CAPITA
PER
DAY
FOR
THE
LAST
50
YEARS.
AIR
TRAVEL
IS
NOT
INCLUDED
(SSB,
2012).
......................................................................................................................
29
FIGURE
7
-­‐
REGISTERED
CARS
IN
NORWAY
BY
FUEL
TYPE.
....................................................................................................
29
FIGURE
8
-­‐
DISTRIBUTION
OF
CAR
SALES
IN
NORWAY
IN
2012
AND
THE
AVERAGE
FOR
THE
EU
IN
2010.
................
30
FIGURE
9
-­‐
NATIONAL
FREIGHT
TRANSPORT
FROM
1946
-­‐
2012.
.....................................................................................
31
FIGURE
10
-­‐
LOW-­‐EMISSIONS
SCENARIO
FOR
PASSENGER
TRANSPORT
IN
NORWAY
(TONS
OF
CO2).
...........................
32
FIGURE
11
-­‐
THE
FOUR
PHASES
OF
TRANSITION
(BOTMANS
ET
AL.
2000
AND
2001).
..................................................
34
FIGURE
12
-­‐
THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF
CARBON
EMISSIONS
FROM
NEW
CARS
(MEASURES
IN
AVERAGE
G/KM)
IN
CERTAIN
COUNTRIES
AND
FOR
THE
EU
ON
AVERAGE.
.................................................................................................
38
FIGURE
13
-­‐
NUMBER
OF
ELECTRIC
VEHICLES
ON
NORWEGIAN
ROADS
2000
-­‐
2013.
...................................................
38
FIGURE
14
-­‐
EV
AND
PLUG-­‐IN
HYBRIDS
(PHEV)
REGISTRATIONS
IN
VARIOUS
COUNTRIES
(NUMBER
OF
VEHICLES
SOLD)
AND
THE
TOTAL
SHARE
OF
REGISTRATIONS
(PERCENTAGE)
IN
THE
FIRST
QUARTER
OF
2015.
..............
39
FIGURE
15
-­‐
EMISSIONS
INTENSITY
FOR
NEW
CARS
IN
NORWAY
FROM
2006
-­‐
2012.
...................................................
40
FIGURE
16
-­‐
PRICE
STRUCTURE
FOR
UNLEADED
FUEL
IN
2012
(YEARLY
AVERAGE)(NOK
ØRE
PER
LITRE).
..............
41
FIGURE
17.
A
LINE
MAP
SHOWING
THE
NORWEGIAN
NATIONAL
RAIL
NETWORK
.............................................................
44

9. 9
CHAPTER
1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1
BACKGROUND
The
21st
Conference
of
Parties
will
take
place
in
Paris
in
December
where
world
leaders
will
be
discussing
reductions
in
greenhouse
gas
emissions
and
the
creation
of
a
binding,
global
agreement.
Lack
of
progress
in
the
climate
policy
sector
and
the
steep
growth
in
emissions
observed
in
the
21st
century
are
reasons
for
acknowledging
this
meeting
as
perhaps
the
world’s
last
chance
of
coming
to
an
agreement
in
reducing
greenhouse
gas
emissions.
The
UN
Secretary
General,
Ban
Ki-­‐moon,
stated
at
a
conference
in
Washington
D.C.
that
a
global
agreement
is
vital,
but
in
order
to
reach
the
set
targets,
political
and
economic
dimensions
need
to
be
in
place
to
support
them.1
Norway
is
committing
to
reduce
its
greenhouse
gas
emissions
by
40
per
cent
by
2030
compared
to
1990
levels.
It
also
intends
on
achieving
a
carbon-­‐neutral
society
by
2050.2
This
pledge
will
call
for
improved
climate
policies
in
the
country,
and
Prime
Minister
Erna
Solberg
has
stated
that
Norwegian
society
needs
to
be
transformed
to
adhere
to
this
commitment.3
Increased
social
demand
for
green
initiatives
and
sustainable
development
have
contributed
to
political
consensus
that
Norway
needs
to
take
responsibility
for
reducing
its
emissions.4
Agreements
reached
within
the
Norwegian
government
in
2008
and
2012
have
formed
the
basis
of
Norwegian
climate
policy.5
Electricity
generation
in
Norway
comes
mostly
from
hydroelectric
power.
As
a
result,
the
main
sources
of
greenhouse
gas
emissions
are
from
industry
and
transport.6
Emissions
from
Norway’s
transport
sector
constitute
25.5
percent
of
total
domestic
emissions,
and
have
increased
by
32
per
cent
since
1990
(1990-­‐2013).7
Road
traffic
dominates
and
accounts
for
66.6
per
cent
of
transport
related
emissions.8
Although
various
instruments
and
measures
have
been
implemented
to
‘guide’
the
public
towards
choosing
greener
options
–
public
transport,
cycling,
and
electric
cars
for
instance
–
emissions
have
continued
to
rise.
In
order
for
Norway
to
reach
its
target,
emissions
from
transport
must
be
reduced
by
30
percent
in
the
next
15
years.
1
Ki-­‐moon,
B.,
“Statement:
Secretary-­‐General’s
Remarks
at
Spring
Meetings
of
the
World
Bank
and
2
Office
of
the
Prime
Minister.
“A
New
and
More
Ambitious
Climate
Policy
for
Norway”.
Norwegian
Government.
February
4
2015.
Available
at:
https://www.regjeringen.no/en/aktuelt/ny-­‐og-­‐mer-­‐ambisios-­‐klimapolitikk/id2393609/
3
“Norway”,
Climate
Action
Tracker,
accessed
July
12,
2015.
http://climateactiontracker.org/countries/norway.html
4
CICEP
and
FME,
CICEP
Annual
Report
2014:
Strategic
Challenges
in
International
Climate
and
Energy
Policy.
2015
5
Norwegian
Ministry
of
the
Environment,
Meld.
St.
21
(2011-­‐2012)
Agreement
on
Climate
Policy
(Oslo,
2012)
6
Norwegian
Environment
Agency,
Statistics
Norway,
and
Norwegian
Forest
and
Landscape
Institute,
Greenhouse
gas
emissions
1990-­‐2012,
National
Inventory
Report
(Norwegian
Government,
2014),
M-­‐137.
7
Fridstrøm,
Lasse
and
Alfsen,
Knut
H.,
Norway’s
Path
to
Sustainable
Transport,
research
report
prepared
for
Institute
for
Transport
Economics
(1321,
2014)
8
Ibid.

10. 10
A
general
principle
of
Norwegian
climate
policy
has
been
to
ensure
that
each
sector
takes
responsibility
for
reducing
emissions.9
There
are
a
number
of
national
policies
in
place
to
tackle
domestic
emissions
from
transport,
however
Norway’s
transport
sector
is
complex.10
There
are
many
transport
mediums
with
a
wide
range
of
emission
intensity
levels.
The
government
has
aimed
at
prioritizing
public
transport,
and
securing
environmentally
friendly
freight-­‐
and
passenger
transport
in
a
hope
to
reduce
emissions.
However,
despite
of
this
goal,
emissions
from
transport
have
been
increasing.
A
number
of
initiatives
implemented
by
the
Norwegian
government
have
analyzed
Norway’s
potential
to
reduce
emissions.
In
2010
the
Office
of
the
Auditor
General
in
Norway
published
a
report
aimed
at
assessing
Norway’s
achievement
in
climate-­‐related
matters.
The
report
suggests
there
will
be
need
for
reinforcement
if
targets
are
to
be
reached
by
2020.
The
Klimakur
report
from
2010
considered
possible
means
and
measures
to
fulfill
the
climate
targets.11
5
years
after
this
account,
many
suggested
measures
have
yet
to
take
effect.12
Has
Norway
performed
well
in
trying
to
reduce
emissions
from
transport?
Why
has
there
been
a
lack
of
progress
since
these
reports
were
published?
Have
instruments
and
measures
in
place
limited
emissions
sufficiently?
There
are
many
overarching
factors
that
come
into
play
when
implementing
new
policies
or
measures
–
amongst
them
political
and
economic
support.
Who
is
responsible
for
their
implementation?
Public
opinion
shows
a
desire
to
increase
policy
measures,
as
most
people
believe
current
ones
will
not
suffice
in
reducing
emissions.13
Many
believe
the
politicians
could
have
achieved
more.14
If
the
government’s
performance
has
not
been
satisfactory,
how
will
Norway
attempt
to
further
reduce
emissions
in
the
future?
1.2
RESEARCH
FOCUS
Policy
measures
implemented
by
the
Norwegian
government
have
been
estimated
to
yield
a
total
reduction
of
16-­‐19
MtCO2
equivalents
by
2020
(17-­‐20
MtCO2
equivalents
by
2030).15
Under
current
policies,
Norway
will
not
reach
its
Kyoto
commitment
without
acquiring
emission
units
internationally.16
A
major
focus
of
this
thesis
is
to
explore
9
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment,
Prop.
1
S
(2014-­‐2015)
Statsbudsjettet
2015
(Norwegian
Government,
2014)
10
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment,
Meld.
St.
21
(2011-­‐2012)
Agreement
on
Climate
Policy
(Norwegian
Government,
2012)
11
Nikolaisen,
P.I.,
TU,
“Så
lite
har
Norge
gjort
med
klimautslippene”,
posted
30
January
2014,
last
accessed
14
June
2015.
Available
at:
http://www.tu.no/klima/2014/01/30/sa-­‐lite-­‐har-­‐norge-­‐
gjort-­‐med-­‐klimautslippene
12
Ibid.
13
Risa,
A.V.
and
Gellein,
M.L.,
“Climate
Change
Policies
in
Norway:
Preferences
for
Plan
A
versus
Plan
B”
(master’s
thesis,
University
of
Stavanger,
2013).
14
Marino,
M.S.;
Bjørge,
N.E.;
Ericson,
T.;
Garnåsjordet,
P.A.;
Karlsen,
H.T.;
Randers,
J.
and
Rees,
D.,
People’s
Opinion
of
Climate
Policy
–
Popular
Support
for
Climate
Policy
Alternatives
in
Norway,
research
report
prepared
for
CICERO
(CICERO
Working
Paper
2002:3,
Oslo,
2012)
15
“Norway”,
Climate
Action
Tracker,
accessed
July
12,
2015.
http://climateactiontracker.org/countries/norway.html
16
“Norway”,
Climate
Action
Tracker,
accessed
July
12,
2015.
http://climateactiontracker.org/countries/norway.html

11. 11
Norway’s
transport
sector,
its
sources
of
greenhouse
gas
emissions,
and
what
measures
have
been
implemented
to
reduce
them.
A
lot
of
attention
will
be
put
on
Norway’s
political
system
and
how
it
contributes
to
the
implementation
of
policies
and
regulations
to
limit
emissions.
Further,
to
gain
insight
of
Norway’s
past
achievements,
its
development
will
be
studied
by
concentrating
on
two
transport
areas:
passenger
transport
and
freight.
Attention
will
be
given
to
the
government’s
performance
and
the
various
aspects
that
impact
their
functioning,
and
whether
existing
policies
and
measures
will
suffice
in
reducing
future
emissions.
How
has
the
transport
sector
changed
and
is
it
easier
to
implement
new
policies
today?
There
will
be
emphasis
on
external
impacts
to
the
political
system,
benefits
of
top-­‐down
and
bottom-­‐up
approaches
to
governance,
and
how
Norway
should
move
forward
in
the
best
way
possible.
This
research
is
important
because
it
highlights
issues
that
could
have
contributed
to
the
observed
increase
in
emissions.
Does
all
responsibility
for
the
observed
increase
lie
with
the
political
system?
The
government
is
a
highly
diverse
body,
with
many
levels
and
institutions
with
varying
responsibilities.17
Reducing
emissions
has
never
been
this
important.
In
order
to
do
so
it
is
important
to
understand
what
went
wrong
in
the
past,
where
improvements
can
be
made,
and
what
mistakes
that
should
be
avoided
in
the
future.
One
could
argue
that
without
a
firm
understanding
of
the
transport
sector,
its
overarching
components,
and
past
development,
emission
cuts
may
not
happen
–
or
at
least
not
within
the
time
frame
set
for
target
achievement.
To
understand
how
emissions
can
be
reduced
in
the
future,
various
levels
of
bottom-­‐up
and
top-­‐down
governance
approaches
must
be
understood,
their
impacts,
and
ultimately
the
successes
they
can
achieve.
Fewer
policies
have
been
implemented
in
Norway
in
the
last
5
years
compared
to
implementation
levels
a
decade
ago.18
How
have
external
factors
affected
policy
implementation?
Although
there
are
many
instruments
and
measures
in
place,
the
UNFCCC
says
it
is
difficult
to
establish
whether
or
not
they
are
effective
and
will
assist
Norway
in
reaching
its
ambitious
climate
goals
in
2020
and
2030.19
The
knowledge
attained
from
these
studies
will
assist
in
exploring
Norway’s
feasibility
of
reducing
emissions
with
its
current
policies
and
political
system.
1.3
OVERALL
RESEARCH
AIM
AND
INDIVIDUAL
RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
The
overall
aim
of
this
study
is
to
explore
how
Norway’s
political
system
has
contributed
to
reducing
emissions
from
the
transport
sector
and
how
levels
of
governance
can
impact
17
Alfsen,
K.H.;
Bjørnæs,
C.
and
Reed,
E.U.,
“Vurderinger
av
Norsk
Klimapolitikk
–
En
Syntese
av
Fire
Internasjonale
Rapporter”,
research
report
prepared
for
CICERO
(Report
2011:02,
Oslo,
2012)
18
Risa,
A.V.
and
Gellein,
M.L.,
“Climate
Change
Policies
in
Norway:
Preferences
for
Plan
A
versus
Plan
B”
(master’s
thesis,
University
of
Stavanger,
2013).
19
UNFCCC, “Report of the in-depth review of the fifth national communication of Norway”, available at:
http://unfccc.int/documentation/documents/advanced_search/items/3594. php?rec=j&priref=60000625
6#beg

12. 12
the
feasibility
of
reducing
emissions
in
the
future.
In
order
to
understand
emissions
from
transport,
it
is
necessary
to
gain
insight
into
Norway’s
climate
policies
and
how
emissions
are
being
reduced.
By
analyzing
the
political
system
and
its
influence
on
the
implementation
of
climate
policies,
it
will
be
possible
to
distinguish
whether
existing
policies
will
assist
Norway
in
achieving
its
2030
climate
targets
or
not.
Within
the
context
of
governance
and
climate
policy,
the
following
objectives
have
been
identified
in
helping
to
achieve
the
overall
aim:
1. Identify
current
measures
in
place
to
reduce
emissions
and
their
impact.
2. Evaluate
the
effectiveness
of
Norway’s
political
system
–
how
effective
have
they
been
in
reducing
emissions,
and
could
they
have
done
more?
3. Explore
the
feasibility
of
reducing
emissions
further
in
the
future
–
and
how
can
the
political
system
best
facilitate
it?
Two
main
investigation
methods
will
be
used
to
facilitate
this
study:
a
critical
assessment
of
the
existing
literature,
and
a
description
and
analysis
of
empirical
data.
Qualitative
research
will
be
gathered
through
one-­‐on-­‐one
interviews
with
knowledgeable
experts
from
government,
industry
and
citizen
action
groups.
In
the
chapter
titled
‘Research
Methods’
follows
a
thorough
description
of
the
research
strategy
and
data
collection
techniques
used
in
this
study.
1.4
VALUE
OF
RESEARCH
This
research
is
important
to
improve
the
understanding
of
emissions
reductions.
If
cuts
are
to
happen
in
the
future,
one
must
understand
what
failed
and
what
worked
in
the
past,
and
the
impact
of
both
positive
and
negative
measures
(i.e.
incentives
versus
penalties).
How
did
the
population
react
and
behave?
This
study
will
highlight
what
the
government,
businesses
and
the
public
require
in
terms
of
responsibility,
investments,
and
the
desire
to
choose
a
green
transport
method.
The
literature
review
is
important
because
it
highlights
the
achievements
made
to
date
within
passenger
transport
and
freight.
Published
reports
have
evaluated
Norway’s
achievements,
but
also
assessed
its
future
and
the
measures
required
to
further
reduce
emissions.
This
section
will
assist
in
evaluating
where
the
gaps
are.
The
empirical
research
(i.e.
one-­‐on-­‐one
interviews)
is
important
because
it
will
assist
in
gaining
a
further
understanding
of
Norway’s
transport
sector.
Although
published
reports
have
analyzed
the
sector
in
great
detail,
knowledgeable
experts
from
government,
industry
and
citizen
action
groups
will
provide
additional
insights.
These
interviews
compliment
existing
reports
on
Norway’s
transport
sector
and
give
insight
to
improvements
that
can
be
made
in
the
future.
1.5
STRUCTURE
OUTLINE
Chapter
1:
Introduction

13. 13
This
chapter
provides
the
reader
with
background
information
on
climate
policy,
greenhouse
gas
emissions
from
the
transport
sector
and
setting
future
reduction
targets.
There
are
explanations
regarding
the
importance
and
value
of
research
and
the
research
focus
is
discussed
and
justified.
The
overall
research
aim
and
individual
objectives
are
identified
and
clarified.
Chapter
2:
Background
Information
The
main
focus
of
this
chapter
is
to
give
the
reader
an
understanding
of
climate
policies
in
the
EU
and
how
Norway’s
climate
policies
are
developed
as
a
result
of
its
link
with
the
EU.
The
policy
cycle
in
Norway
will
be
elaborated
on.
Chapter
3:
Methodology
This
chapter
outlines
the
approaches
adopted
in
this
research.
The
research
strategy
will
be
explained
in
addition
to
why
this
approach
was
chosen.
Data
collection
methods
will
be
clarified
and
justified.
The
limitations
and
potential
problems
will
be
discussed
before
highlighting
the
framework
for
data
analysis
and
how
the
empirical
research
findings
will
be
produced.
Chapter
4:
Literature
Review
-­‐
Norway’s
Transport
Sector
This
chapter
explores
the
transport
sector
in
detail.
It
covers
emissions
related
to
transport
and
how
these
have
changed
in
the
past
and
are
expected
to
change
in
the
future.
The
EU’s
influence
on
Norwegian
climate
policies
will
be
studied
before
investigating
the
impact
of
existing
policies.
An
explanation
of
various
policies
and
regulations
are
given
before
outlining
the
main
reports
published
on
Norway’s
achievements
in
reducing
emissions.
Chapter
5:
Empirical
Research
Findings:
Description,
Analysis
and
Synthesis
This
chapter
reports
on
findings
from
the
personal
interviews.
Firstly,
past
achievements
in
the
transport
sector
will
be
discussed,
answering
questions
such
as:
Where
the
focus
has
been
and
how
has
research
impacted
decision-­‐making?
These
questions
will
be
answered
in
reference
to
two
key
areas:
passenger
transport
and
freight.
The
discussion
will
then
move
to
the
future,
where
other
questions
will
be
addressed,
such
as:
is
it
easier
to
implement
policies
today,
and
how
can
Norway
best
move
forward
in
reducing
emissions
to
meet
the
2030
targets?
Chapter
6:
Conclusions
and
Recommendations
The
study
will
conclude
by
revisiting
the
overall
aim
and
objectives.
The
findings
will
be
summarized,
and
conclusions
will
be
derived
and
linked
to
the
specific
objectives.
The
contributions
of
this
study
will
be
highlighted,
as
will
the
limitations.
Personal
reflections
will
be
included
throughout
this
chapter.

14. 14
Chapter
7:
References
Contains
an
alphabetical
list
of
all
sources
used.
The
Chicago
Referencing
System
is
applied.

15. 15
CHAPTER
2:
BACKGROUND
INFORMATION
Over
the
past
century
the
Norwegian
population
has
grown
from
2.3
million
to
5.5
million.20
Changes
in
societal
structure,
income
levels
and
natural
resource
exploitation
have
led
Norway
to
becoming
one
of
the
world’s
foremost
welfare
states.
Norway
is
a
major
exporter
of
oil
and
gas,
which
is
the
main
reason
for
its
advantageous
financial
position.21
The
exploitation
of
fossil
fuels
in
the
North
Sea
has
amplified
economic
growth,
however
it
has
also
dramatically
increased
greenhouse
gas
emissions.22
Climate
policies
focused
on
reducing
emissions
have
been
central
in
governments
and
organisations
for
the
past
couple
decades.
The
challenges
emerging
from
climate
change
are
transnational,
interdisciplinary,
and
address
all
sectors
and
levels
of
society.
Climate
policies
are
therefore
designed
and
developed
on
international,
national
and
local
levels.23
Figure
1
-­‐
Topographic
map
of
Norway
including
major
cities.24
20
“Driving
Forces
in
Norway”,
Environment.no,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://www.environment.no/Topics/Climate/Norways-­‐climate/Driving-­‐forces-­‐in-­‐Norway/
21
Ibid.
22
Ibid.
23
Neby,
S.;
Rykkja,
L.H.;
Olsen,
H.S.
and
Hope,
K.L,
“Klimatiltak
på
Vestlandet
–
En
Innledende
Kartlegging”,
research
report
prepared
for
Stein
Rokkan
Center
for
Social
Studies
(Bergen,
2012).
24
Visit
Norway,
Innovation
Norway,
Map.
Available
at:
http://www.visitnorway.com/uk/vn/map/

16. 16
Norway
has
a
heavy
oil
and
gas
sector
that
has
structured
the
Norwegian
economy
for
decades.
If
countries
that
import
oil
and
gas
from
Norway
succeed
in
their
transition
to
low-­‐carbon
environments,
Norway’s
oil
and
gas
interests
will
collapse.
Politicians
pretend
the
two
are
not
linked,
as
one
day
they
will
discuss
climate
policies
and
the
next
they
discuss
oil
policy.
“Norway
is
uncomfortably
invested
in
the
problem
instead
of
the
solution”,
Kasper
Sandal
(own
translation).25
Norway
has
shown
initiative
to
reduce
emissions,
yet
it
lives
with
the
paradox
that
the
fossil
age
should
last
as
long
as
possible.
2.1
CONFERENCE
OF
PARTIES
AND
THE
PARIS
NEGOTIATIONS
(COP
21)
The
first
environmental
agreement
negotiated
by
the
international
community
was
the
UN
Framework
Convention
on
Climate
Change
at
the
Earth
Summit
in
Rio
de
Janeiro
in
1992.
The
Conference
of
Parties
(COP)
was
entrusted
with
regularly
reviewing
the
Convention
and
assessing
its
implementation.
The
Kyoto
Protocol
was
adopted
in
1997
at
COP
3
and
committed
state
parties
to
reduce
their
greenhouse
gas
emissions.
The
Kyoto
Protocol
is
the
last
international
treaty
implemented,
to
date,
to
try
and
prevent
catastrophic
global
warming.26
COP
negotiations
in
recent
years
have
been
unsuccessful
in
terms
of
reaching
a
unified
agreement
on
future
emissions
reductions
and
the
upcoming
negotiations
in
Paris
have
been
heavily
debated
in
the
media
due
to
this
unsatisfactory
track
record.
2.2
NORWAY
AND
THE
EUROPEAN
COMMISSION
(EU)
–
THE
EEA
Climate
policy
has
been
a
part
of
the
EU
since
the
late
1980s.
Research
and
development
related
to
energy
efficiency
and
renewable
energy
has
been
a
key
focus.27
The
Commission
is
committed
to
significantly
reducing
emissions
by
2050.28
Emissions
reduction
targets
within
the
EU
have
so
far
not
been
binding.
Policy
needs
to
be
strengthened
to
help
Europe
move
towards
a
low-­‐carbon
economy,
and
existing
cornerstone
policies
need
vast
improvements.
The
EU
faces
many
challenges
including
furthering
the
development
of
environmental
diplomacy
and
domestic
policies.29
Fortunately
public
support
remains
high,
putting
pressure
on
governments
for
change.30
Decisions
made
by
the
Commission
have
a
top-­‐down
effect
on
domestic
policies
of
each
member
state
-­‐
including
Norway.
25
Sandal,
K.,
“Offshore
Vind,
Hva
er
Neste
Trekk?”,
research
report
prepared
for
Norwegian
Climate
Foundation,
“Slik
Kan
Norge
Gjøre
en
Forskjell”,
(Report
04/2015)
26
Sands,
Philippe,
and
Jacqueline
Peel.
Principles
of
international
environmental
law.
Cambridge
University
Press,
2012.
27
“The
European
Union”,
CICEP,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://www.cicep.uio.no/Fakta-­‐ark/eu/
28
Ibid.
29
Ibid.
30
Marino,
M.S.;
Bjørge,
N.E.;
Ericson,
T.;
Garnåsjordet,
P.A.;
Karlsen,
H.T.;
Randers,
J.
and
Rees,
D.,
People’s
Opinion
of
Climate
Policy
–
Popular
Support
for
Climate
Policy
Alternatives
in
Norway,
research
report
prepared
for
CICERO
(CICERO
Working
Paper
2002:3,
Oslo,
2012)

17. 17
Norway
is
not
a
member
of
the
European
Union,
although
it
is
partly
committed
to
it
through
the
European
Economic
Area
agreement
(EEA).31
Since
this
agreement
was
instigated
the
EU
has
been
Norway’s
chief
collaborator.
A
considerable
amount
of
environmental
legislation
implemented
by
the
EU
has
also
been
adopted
by
Norway
in
accordance
with
the
EEA
agreement.32
Norway
is
committed
to
implement
EEA-­‐relevant
directives
into
national
legislation
on
the
same
level
as
other
EU
member
states.
Norway’s
national
legislation
on
climate
policies
therefore
has
a
high
degree
of
correspondence
with
the
EU.33
EU
directives
and
policies
give
guidelines
on
how
member
states
are
to
proceed
with
new
legislation,
though
the
implementation
policy
is
determined
at
national
level.34,35
For
this
reason
there
has
been
little
need
to
involve
the
Norwegian
Parliament
in
finalizing
environmental
legislation.36
The
EU
has
generally
run
a
more
active
and
successful
climate
policy
than
Norway,
leading
to
a
decrease
in
emissions
within
the
EU
while
Norway’s
have
grown.
There
have
been
few
concrete
declarations
on
how
Norway
should
be
reducing
its
emissions.
Bård
Lahn,
a
Norwegian
environmentalist
and
advisor
on
international
climate
policy,
writes
on
his
blog
about
the
confusion
surrounding
international
and
domestic
climate
policies.
He
argues
that
international
negotiations
show
commitments
to
ambitious
targets,
while
national
goals
are
non-­‐committing
and
loose
–
creating
confusion
amongst
the
public
of
the
situation’s
seriousness.37
It
is
difficult
to
estimate
whether
the
EEA
agreement
has
contributed
to
more
climate
regulations
in
Norway
than
if
the
country
had
stood
alone.
Boasson
states
that
EU
legislation
is
unlikely
to
have
had
much
influence
on
climate
legislations
in
Norway,
however
the
Emissions
Trading
Scheme
is
noted
as
an
exception.38
2.3
NORWAY’S
INDCS
AT
COP
21
The
Norwegian
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment
has
stressed
that
domestic
emissions
(0.2
per
cent
of
the
global
total)
must
be
reduced,
and
more
potent
climate
measures,
researched
and
adopted.39
In
April
this
year
the
government
presented
a
White
Paper
to
31
“EU
Relations
with
European
Economic
Area
(EEA)”,
European
Union,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://eeas.europa.eu/eea/
32
Dokken,
J.V.,
“Klimaendringer
og
byråkrati
I
Norge
–
En
Q-­‐Metodologisk
Studie
av
Diskurser
og
Makt”
(master’s
thesis,
University
of
Oslo,
2013)
33
“International
Energy
Data
and
Analysis”,
EIA,
Beta,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/
34
Sveen,
M.H.,
“Fra
Miljø
til
Klima:
Om
Utviklingen
av
en
Klimapolicy
I
Statsbygg”
(master’s
thesis,
Hedmark
University
College,
2013)
35
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment,
Meld.
St.
21
(2011-­‐2012)
Agreement
on
Climate
Policy
(Norwegian
Government,
2012)
36
Dahl,
Agnethe.
"Miljøpolitikk–full
tilpasning
uten
politisk
debatt."
I
Claes,
Dag
Harald
og
Bent
Sofus
Tranøy
(red.)
Utenfor,
annerledes
og
suveren
(1999):
127-­‐149.
37
Lahn,
Bård,
Energi
og
Klima,
“Norges
Klimamål:
En
Bortkastet
Sjanse”,
posted
9
February
2015,
accessed
2
september
2015.
Available
at:
http://energiogklima.no/blogg/baard-­‐lahn/norges-­‐
klimamaal-­‐en-­‐bortkastet-­‐sjanse/
38
Boasson,
E.
L.
“Norsk
Miljøpolitikk
og
EU.
EØS-­‐Avtalen
som
Inspirasjonskilde
og
Maktmiddel
I.
Europautredningen”,
Rapport
no.
19,
2011
39
Risa,
A.V.
and
Gellein,
M.L.,
“Climate
Change
Policies
in
Norway:
Preferences
for
Plan
A
versus
Plan
B”
(master’s
thesis,
University
of
Stavanger,
2013).

18. 18
the
UN
listing
its
Intended
National
Determined
Contributions
(INDCs)
for
the
period
after
2020.40
The
new
commitment
period
will
have
a
time
frame
from
2021-­‐2030.41
By
2030
Norway
aims
to
have
reduced
its
greenhouse
gas
emissions
by
40
per
cent
compared
to
1990
levels.42
Norway
will
also
adopt
a
goal
of
achieving
a
low-­‐carbon
society
by
2030
(Figure
2).43
There
have
been
debates
surrounding
the
feasibility
of
Norway’s
INDCs.
Some
have
argued
that
these
commitments
are
unachievable
with
current
policies.44
Figure
2
-­‐
Emissions
reductions
in
Norway
by
sector
with
a
global
implementation
of
the
2-­‐degree
limit
(MtCO2
2015-­‐2050).
The
percentage
share
of
total
emissions
reductions
in
2050.
Most
cuts
are
expected
to
happen
in
the
transport
sector45
Although
Norway
has
a
binding
commitment
through
the
EEA,
it
is
taking
the
initiative
to
enter
into
the
EU’s
framework
for
climate
policies
and
uniting
with
them
on
a
joint
fulfillment
of
their
2030
framework
for
climate
policies.46
If
an
agreement
with
the
EU
cannot
be
established,
an
emissions
reduction
of
40
per
cent
will
still
apply.47
40
“A
New
and
More
Ambitious
Climate
Policy
for
Norway”,
Government.no,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
https://www.regjeringen.no/en/aktuelt/ny-­‐og-­‐mer-­‐ambisios-­‐
klimapolitikk/id2393609/
41
“INDCs
as
Communicated
by
Parties”,
UNFCCC,
INDC,
Submission
by
Norway
to
the
ADP.
Accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://www4.unfccc.int/submissions/indc/Submission%20Pages/submissions.aspx
42
“Norway”,
Climate
Action
Tracker,
accessed
July
12,
2015.
Available
at:
http://climateactiontracker.org/countries/norway.html
43
Ibid.
44
Lahn,
Bård,
Energi
og
Klima,
“Norges
Klimamål:
En
Bortkastet
Sjanse”,
posted
9
February
2015,
accessed
2
september
2015.
Available
at:
http://energiogklima.no/blogg/baard-­‐lahn/norges-­‐
klimamaal-­‐en-­‐bortkastet-­‐sjanse/
45
Fæhn,
T.;
Isaksen,
E.T.
and
Rosnes,
O.”Kostnadeffektive
Tilpasninger
til
Togradersmålet
I
Norge
of
EU
Fram
Mot
2050”,
research
report
prepared
for
Statistics
Norway
(Report
39,
Oslo,
2013)
46
“A
New
and
More
Ambitious
Climate
Policy
for
Norway”,
Government.no,
accessed
2
September
2015.
47
“Norway”,
Climate
Action
Tracker,
accessed
July
12,
2015.

19. 19
2.4
THE
POLICY
CYCLE
AND
PAST
POLICY
DEVELOPMENTS
The
Norwegian
Parliament
(‘Storting’)
holds
all
legislative
and
budgetary
power.
A
coalition
government,
elected
within
a
multi-­‐parti
system,
holds
executive
power
and
is
responsible
for
implementing
statutes
and
decisions
made
by
the
Storting.48
The
ultimate
responsibility
for
designing
climate
policies
lies
within
the
government
and
the
Storting.
Norway’s
executive
branch
is
divided
into
several
Ministries.
The
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment
has
the
primary
responsibility
for
implementing
climate
and
environmental
policies.49
Although
the
Ministry
has
overall
responsibility,
Norway’s
municipalities
and
counties
are
responsible
for
the
implementation
of
national
policies.
They
are
independent
institutions
with
delegated
authority
from
the
state,
and
maintain
an
important
role
in
the
decision-­‐making
process.50
The
Norwegian
Environment
Agency
reports
to
this
Ministry
and
provides
advice
and
support
in
the
policy-­‐making
process,
the
Ministry
of
Transport
and
Communications
is
responsible
for
transport
infrastructure
and
the
Public
Roads
Administration
is
responsible
for
operating
and
maintaining
the
road
network.51
After
the
Storting
adopted
its
own
carbon
tax
regime
for
the
transport
and
fossil
fuel
sectors
in
1991,
further
measures
to
reduce
emissions
were
attempted.
This
provoked
strong
resistance
from
the
government
and
businesses,
leading
the
Storting
to
move
away
from
ambitious
policies,
and
towards
more
pragmatic
ones.52,53
However,
even
Norway’s
pragmatic
policies
have
been
perceived
as
ambitious.
The
latest
White
Paper
was
presented
in
2012
–
the
Climate
Settlement54
–
and
builds
on
the
‘Agreement
on
Climate
Policy’,55
introduced
in
2008.
The
first
official
agreement
established
a
number
of
basic
principles
that
were
to
form
the
basis
of
Norwegian
climate
policy.56
These
include
the
‘precautionary
principle,
the
‘polluter
pays
principle’
and
the
principle
of
equitable
distribution.57
Economic
policy
instruments
such
as
carbon
taxes
48
ENOVA,
Results
and
Activities
2014
(2015:1,
Trondheim,
2015)
49
Neby,
S.;
Rykkja,
L.H.;
Olsen,
H.S.
and
Hope,
K.L,
“Klimatiltak
på
Vestlandet
–
En
Innledende
Kartlegging”,
research
report
prepared
for
Stein
Rokkan
Center
for
Social
Studies
(Bergen,
2012).
50
Ibid.
51
“Norway”,
LSE,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://www.lse.ac.uk/GranthamInstitute/legislation/countries/norway/#legislative
52
Andresen,
S.,
Boasson,
E.
L.
&
G.
Hønneland.
2008.
Fremveksten
av
internasjonal
miljøpolitikk.
Andresen,
E.
L.
Boasson
&
G.
Hønneland
(red.).
Internasjonal
miljøpolitikk.
Fagbokforlaget,
Bergen
53
Skjærseth,
J.
B.
&
T.
Skodvin.
2009.
Climate
change
and
the
oil
industry.
Common
problem,
varying
strategies.
Manchester
University
Press,
Manchester.
54
Energy
and
the
Environment
Committee,
“Recommendation
of
the
Energy
and
Environment
Committee:
Climate
Settlement,
Innst.
390
S
(2011-­‐2012)”,
(Oslo,
2012).
55
Energy
and
Environment
Committee,
“Recommendation
of
the
Energy
and
Environment
Committee:
Innst.
S.
nr.
145
(2007-­‐2008)”,
(Oslo,
2008)
56
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment,
Meld.
St.
21
(2011-­‐2012)
Agreement
on
Climate
Policy
(Norwegian
Government,
2012)
57
“The
Agreement
on
Climate
Policy”,
Government.no,
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment,
accessed
2
September
2015.

20. 20
provide
cost-­‐effective
actions
where
the
polluter
pays.58
In
2012
the
Storting
agreed
that
the
government
would
review
the
relevance
of
a
separate
climate
statute.59
In
March
2015
the
government
was
ordered
to
generate
and
propose
a
climate
bill
during
the
current
political
term,
containing
national
emission
targets
for
2030
and
2050.60
Figure
3
-­‐
Total
emissions
of
greenhouse
gases
in
Norway
since
1990
divided
by
source
(SSB).61
Figure
3
shows
the
evolution
of
domestic
emissions
from
1990
when
they
totaled
at
49.8
MtCO2
equivalents,
and
increased
to
52.9
Mt
in
2010.
Preliminary
figures
for
2014
from
SSB
show
that
emissions
from
Norwegian
territory
were
53.8
MtCO2
equivalents.62
This
illustrates
a
leveling
off
of
emissions
in
recent
years.
Under
current
projections,
greenhouse
gas
emissions
will
by
2020
have
increased
by
10
per
cent
from
1990
levels,
reaching
55
MtCO2
equivalents.63
Measures
implemented
in
2008
will
have
yielded
a
reduction
in
emissions
by
5
Mt
in
total
by
2020.
Future
emissions
are
expected
to
stabilize
at
52
MtCO2
equivalents
by
2030.64
58
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment,
Meld.
St.
21
(2011-­‐2012)
Agreement
on
Climate
Policy
(Norwegian
Government,
2012)
59
Innst.
390
S
(2011-­‐2012)
pg.
26
60
“Regjeringen
Pålegges
å
lage
Klimalov,
mot
Frp’s
Stemmer”,
Aftenposten,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://www.aftenposten.no/nyheter/iriks/politikk/Regjeringen-­‐palegges-­‐a-­‐
lage-­‐klimalov_-­‐mot-­‐Frps-­‐stemmer-­‐7951907.html
61
“Kilder
til
Utslipp
av
Klimagasser”,
Miljøstatus.no,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://www.miljostatus.no/Tema/Klima/Klimanorge/Kilder-­‐til-­‐utslipp-­‐av-­‐klimagasser/
62
“Emissions
of
Greenhouse
Gases,
2014,
Preliminary
Figures”,
Statistics
Norway,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
https://www.ssb.no/en/natur-­‐og-­‐miljo/statistikker/klimagassn
63
“Norway”,
Climate
Action
Tracker,
accessed
July
12,
2015.
Available
at:
http://climateactiontracker.org/countries/norway.html
64
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment,
Meld.
St.
21
(2011-­‐2012)
Agreement
on
Climate
Policy
(Norwegian
Government,
2012)

21. 21
Seilskjær
(2013)
states
the
implementation
of
climate
policies
in
Norway
is
poor.
He
argues
that
emissions
regulations
within
various
Norwegian
sectors
are
limited
due
to
a
combination
of
insufficient
coordination
across
sectors
and
levels
of
government,
and
inadequate
protection
of
sector
responsibilities.
There
are
no
overarching
regulations
on
how
objectives
and
policies
can
correspond
in
a
better
way.65
Norway
has
sought
to
maintain
economic
growth
in
addition
to
obtaining
the
greatest
climate
benefits
per
investment
made.
Achieving
the
ambitious
targets
that
Norway
has
set
itself
requires
a
mix
of
technology
development,
energy
efficiency
improvements
and
new
concepts
at
local,
regional
and
national
levels.66
65
Seilskjær,
Mari,
“Sektorovergripende
Regulering
av
Norske
Klimagassutslipp:
En
Rettspolitisk
Analyse
av
Regelverk
og
Måloppnåelse
på
Klimaområdet”
(master’s
thesis,
University
of
Oslo,
2013)
66
“Energy
and
Enviroment”,
Invest
in
Norway,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://www.invinor.no/no/Industries/Energy-­‐-­‐Environment/

22. 22
CHAPTER
3:
METHODOLOGY
3.1
INTRODUCTION
This
study
aims
to
analyze
the
effectiveness
of
Norway’s
political
system
in
facilitating
the
reduction
of
greenhouse
gas
emissions
from
the
transport
sector.
An
important
aspect
is
to
evaluate
whether
Norway’s
political
system
could
have
done
more.
Two
different
approaches
were
used
to
pursue
the
objectives
of
this
study:
a
literature
review
and
one-­‐
on-­‐one
interviews
conducted
by
the
author
The
initial
research
consisted
of
a
literature
review
of
published
reports
from
informed
organisations
and
government
institutions
(Chapter
4).
These
reports
are
used
to
answer
the
first
research
objective
–
what
current
measures
are
in
place
to
reduce
emissions?
The
second
and
third
objective
relates
to
the
Norwegian
government’s
decision-­‐making
skills.
Semi-­‐structured
interviews
will
be
conducted
with
influential
contacts
in
the
government
and
various
institutions
to
gain
a
personal
understanding
of
the
decision-­‐making
process
(Chapter
5).
Behavior
can
be
interpreted
in
a
number
of
ways
and
various
individuals
may
have
different
interpretations
of
this
due
to
their
backgrounds.
Participants
will
contribute
perspective
on
past
political
performances,
and
how
they
think
the
political
system
can
influence
emissions
over
the
next
15
years.
There
is
little
information
regarding
the
future.
Knowledgeable
experts
will
assist
with
their
opinions
on
how
the
future
will
unfold
and
where
they
think
the
focus
should
be.
The
structure
of
this
chapter
will
begin
with
stating
the
chosen
research
strategy
for
this
study,
why
this
particular
strategy
was
chosen
and
how
it
was
used.
The
next
section
will
explain
the
data
collection
method
and
a
justification
for
choosing
this
method.
A
framework
for
data
analysis
will
be
presented
and
expected
gains
from
this
study
will
be
clarified.
Finally,
there
will
be
a
discussion
of
potential
limitations
and
problems
that
could
unfold.
The
issues
of
reliability
and
validity,
and
how
they
relate
to
the
research
strategy,
will
be
explored.
3.2
RESEARCH
STRATEGY
The
overall
research
aim
and
objectives
suggest
taking
a
qualitative
approach
as
it
involves
evaluating
the
political
system
in
place.67
This
research
attempts
to
make
sense
of
how
governance
approaches
are
impacted
and
how
they
can
in
turn
affect
the
implementation
of
various
policies
and
measures.
The
overall
research
is
subjective,
where
the
study
probes
into
a
participant’s
cultural
knowledge.68
67
Bryman,
Alan.
Social
research
methods.
Oxford
university
press,
2012.
68
Biggam,
John.
Succeeding
with
your
master's
dissertation:
a
step-­‐by-­‐step
handbook.
McGraw-­‐Hill
Education
(UK),
2015.

23. 23
Phenomenological
research
is
the
understanding
of
individual
perceptions
of
events
-­‐
how
the
world
appears
to
others.69
This
particular
research
strategy
was
chosen
for
this
project
because
the
there
are
many
interpretations
of
reality.
The
published
reports
will
give
certain
points
of
view,
while
knowledgeable
experts
may
see
the
situation
differently
as
their
interpretations
are
time-­‐
and
context-­‐dependent.
Reality
is
socially
constructed
so
each
participant’s
reasoning
will
be
inductive
and
unique.70
The
study
is
cyclical
process
oriented,
where
data
collection
occurs
simultaneously
with
data
analyses
–
the
theory
is
developed
during
the
study.71
This
approach
is
best
suited
to
achieving
the
specific
research
objectives
of
this
study,
in
part
because
large
areas
of
the
study
considers
future
developments
that
are
open
to
interpretation.
3.3
DATA
COLLECTION
The
data
collection
for
this
project
consisted
of
interviewing
a
range
of
knowledgeable
experts
from
government,
industry,
and
citizen
action
groups.
Semi-­‐structured
interviews,
focusing
on
the
research
objectives,
were
carried
out
in
order
to
solicit
opinions
on
Norway’s
transport
sector.
The
interviews
did
not
intend
to
have
the
participant
answer
an
exhaustive
list
of
questions
regarding
all
transport
areas.
Open-­‐ended
questions
were
chosen
to
avoid
this
and
to
instigate
answers
based
on
the
participant’s
area
of
expertise.
Participants
have
different
backgrounds,
and
therefore
very
different
perspectives
on
the
transport
sector
and
how
to
reduce
emissions
in
a
cost-­‐effective
and
productive
way.
An
individual
from
an
industry
will
have
a
different
point
of
view
than
a
government
official,
as
will
a
researcher.
These
various
perspectives
needed
to
be
captured
by
letting
the
participant
focus
on
what
they
know
best.
A
researcher
may
believe
technology
is
the
way
forward,
while
a
policy
maker
could
state
that
technology
cannot
be
developed
on
the
market
unless
there
is
a
framework
to
support
it.
The
stakeholders
and
knowledgeable
experts
will
remain
anonymous
for
this
study,
however
their
working
background
is
stated.
10
interviews
were
conducted
(Table
1),
and
a
list
of
questions
asked
during
the
interview
can
be
found
in
the
Appendix.
The
interview
records
form
the
basis
of
the
empirical
research
findings.
Each
participant’s
ideas
and
points
of
view
were
analyzed
and
evaluated.
69
Ibid.
70
Jackson,
W.,
Gillis,
A.,
&
Verberg,
N.
Qualitative
research
methods.
Communication
research
methods:
Quantitative
and
qualitative
approaches,
423-­‐462.,
2007
71
Ibid.

24. 24
Table
1
-­‐
Institutions
the
interviewees
come
from,
their
role,
and
a
description
of
the
institution.
The
code
name
will
be
used
to
identify
the
participants
in
Chapter
5.
INSTITUTION
ROLE
CODE
DESCRIPTION
Norwegian
Center
for
Transport
Research
Senior
Research
Economist
GOV1
Government
agency
and
independent
research
institution.
Receives
support
from
the
Research
Council
of
Norway
Norwegian
Public
Roads
Administration
Key
employee
GOV2
Government
agency.
Responsible
for
public
roads
in
the
country.
Enova
Program
Manager,
Transport
GOV3
Norwegian
government
enterprise
that
contributes
to
a
restructuring
of
energy
consumption
and
production.
Norwegian
Environment
Agency
Department
Director
GOV4
Government
agency
under
the
Ministry
of
Climate
and
Environment
Norwegian
Public
Roads
Administration/National
Transport
Plan
Key
Official
GOV5
A
coalition
of
the
4
national
transport
agencies
Zero
Emission
Resource
Organisation
(ZERO)
Advisor
INP1
Independent,
environmental,
non-­‐profit
foundation
working
on
the
reduction
of
greenhouse
gases.
Financed
by
private
industry
and
business
partnerships.
Norwegian
Climate
Foundation
Top
Official
INP2
Independent
non-­‐profit
foundation
SINTEF
(The
Foundation
for
Scientific
and
Industrial
Research)
Research
Scientist
RES1
Largest
independent
research
organization
in
Scandinavia
that
does
research
in
a
wide
variety
of
areas
and
topics.
CICERO
Research
Director
RES2
Institute
for
interdisciplinary
climate
research
3.4
FRAMEWORK
FOR
DATA
ANALYSIS
The
empirical
research
data
is
organized
under
two
separate
topics:
a)
past
achievements
in
the
transport
sector,
where
findings
will
address
the
political
system,
the
focus
of
the
policy
makers,
and
what
influences
the
decision-­‐making
process,
and
b)
future
achievements
in
the
transport
sector,
which
will
address
the
acceptance
of
implementing
new
policies,
and
where
the
focus
should
be
to
reach
the
2030
targets.
Two
key
themes
–
passenger
transport
and
freight
–
are
addressed
throughout
the
discussion
and
analysis.
This
is
mainly
to
compare
achievements
within
these
two
transport
mediums.
There
will
be
focus
on
how
implemented
measures
have
impacted
emissions
from
these
two
areas
and
how
political
approaches
have
varied
between
them.
The
interview
records
are
linked
with
findings
from
the
literature
review
and
synthesized
to
produce
the
overall
research
findings.
These
findings
are
used
to
answer
the
research
objectives
and
the
overall
aim
of
the
project.
3.5
LIMITATIONS
AND
POTENTIAL
PROBLEMS
An
advantage
of
this
research
method
is
that
the
interviewed
experts
can
provide
insights
into
the
transport
sector
and
political
system
that
are
not
possible
by
using
quantitative
methods
alone.
However,
a
major
limitation
is
that
the
viewpoints
of
the
participants

25. 25
could
be
lacking
objectivity
and
generalizability.72
A
participant
could
be
influenced
by
their
bias
and
idiosyncrasies.
They
could
also
be
tempted
to
answer
questions
that
they
do
not
know
so
much
about.
It
is
important
to
remain
somewhat
skeptical
to
what
the
participants
have
to
say
and
not
assume
that
all
their
facts
are
valid
and
reliable.
The
participants
in
this
study
will
remain
anonymous,
making
it
easier
to
present
the
findings
in
a
clear
and
direct
manner.
3.6
DEFINITIONS
AND
EXCLUSIONS
This
report
will
only
review
passenger
transport
and
freight.
Details
surrounding
air
traffic
and
shipping
will
not
be
discussed
because
aviation
is
mostly
international
and
featured
in
the
EU-­‐ETS,
and
developments
in
shipping
are
highly
dependent
on
technological
innovation
and
the
market
penetration
of
these
technologies
is
slow.73
Definitions
and
exclusions
are
listed
below:
-­‐ Passenger
transport:
this
category
includes
transportation
by
cars,
non-­‐motorized
transport
(bicycles
and
walking),
motorcycles
and
mopeds,
buses,
passenger
trains,
passenger
ferries
and
other
public
transport.
-­‐ Freight:
this
category
includes
transport
by
trucks,
vans,
and
freight
trains.
Freight
boats
are
excluded.
-­‐ Greenhouse
gas
emissions:
the
report
will
refer
to
CO2
or
CO2
equivalents.
CO2
equivalents
describe
the
global
warming
potential
of
a
gas
using
the
equivalent
concentration
of
CO2.74
-­‐ Finance:
financial
issues
will
not
be
investigated
in
this
study
-­‐ Policies
and
measures:
Those
listed
in
the
literature
review
is
not
an
exhaustive
list
of
all
existing
policies
and
measures.
72
Bryman,
Alan.
Social
research
methods.
Oxford
university
press,
2012.
73
Fridstrøm,
Lasse,
“Norsk
Samferdsel
mot
Togradersmålet
–
To
scenarioer”,
research
report
prepared
for
TØI
(1286/2013)
74
“Glossary
of
Climate
Change
Terms”,
EPA.gov,
accessed
2
September
2015.
Available
at:
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/glossary.html#C