Subsistence Systems Making a Living Cross-Culturally

What are Subsistence Systems? Ways of making a living--directly Types of subsistence Systems Foraging/Hunting and Gathering Horticulture Intensive Cultivation or Agriculture Pastoralism Equestrian Hunting

Ways of making a living--directly

Types of subsistence Systems

Foraging/Hunting and Gathering

Horticulture

Intensive Cultivation or Agriculture

Pastoralism

Equestrian Hunting

Why Study Subsistence Systems? Kingdom: Animalia: We cannot produce food by photosynthesis--no chlorophyll Therefore, we ultimately rely on plants We are how we produce Foragers are organized around the hunting and the gathering So are horticulturists in horticulture So are all the others

Kingdom: Animalia:

We cannot produce food by photosynthesis--no chlorophyll

Therefore, we ultimately rely on plants

We are how we produce

Foragers are organized around the hunting and the gathering

So are horticulturists in horticulture

So are all the others

Subsistence Systems and Adaptation Culture is largely adaptive Main locus of adaptation: subsistence As subsistence systems become more complex Societies become more complex Therefore societies evolve from the simple to the complex

Culture is largely adaptive

Main locus of adaptation: subsistence

As subsistence systems become more complex

Societies become more complex

Therefore societies evolve from the simple to the complex

Overview Subsistence systems Principles of cultural materialism Cultural Evolution Cultural Ecology History of evolutionary thought

Subsistence systems

Principles of cultural materialism

Cultural Evolution

Cultural Ecology

History of evolutionary thought

Types of Subsistence Systems Foraging or Hunting Gathering : Hunting animals, gathering plants Horticulture: Cultivation with digging stick, hoe, or other hand tool(s) Intensive Cultivation: Cultivation with high-yield technology: irrigation, plow Pastoralism: Herding large animals Equestrian Hunting: Hunting using draft animals (horse, reindeer)

Foraging or Hunting Gathering : Hunting animals, gathering plants

Horticulture: Cultivation with digging stick, hoe, or other hand tool(s)

Intensive Cultivation: Cultivation with high-yield technology: irrigation, plow

Pastoralism: Herding large animals

Equestrian Hunting: Hunting using draft animals (horse, reindeer)

Foraging: Main Features Food is where you find it Direct dependence on naturally available plants and animals Plant foods (like these mongongo nuts gathered by !Kung women) Form 80% of the diet among most foragers Near total reliance on hunting is rare (as among the seal-hunting Inuit here) Fluctuation of food sources by place, season, and year Means of meat storage rare or nonexistent Foragers do have wide variety of food

Food is where you find it

Direct dependence on naturally available plants and animals

Plant foods (like these mongongo nuts gathered by !Kung women)

Form 80% of the diet among most foragers

Near total reliance on hunting is rare (as among the seal-hunting Inuit here)

Fluctuation of food sources by place, season, and year

Means of meat storage rare or nonexistent

Foragers do have wide variety of food

Foraging: Carrying Capacity Population limited by Carrying capacity: population resources can support Density of social relations Liebig’s Law of the Minimum Populations may not increase Beyond the minimum amount of critical resources That an environment yields

Population limited by

Carrying capacity: population resources can support

Density of social relations

Liebig’s Law of the Minimum

Populations may not increase

Beyond the minimum amount of critical resources

That an environment yields

Liebig’s Law of the Minimum Illustrated The lowest stave of a barrel limits its capacity Crops can yield only as much As the amount of a critical nutrient Applies to carrying capacity limits

The lowest stave of a barrel limits its capacity

Crops can yield only as much

As the amount of a critical nutrient

Applies to carrying capacity limits

Foraging: Sharing and Property Sharing ethic: shared according to rules Netsilik Inuit: Partnerships by seal anatomy !Kung: Hunters and owner of arrow “own” the game Owner is only stewardship Game is shared by definite obligations Property: Communalism

Sharing ethic: shared according to rules

Netsilik Inuit: Partnerships by seal anatomy

!Kung: Hunters and owner of arrow “own” the game

Owner is only stewardship

Game is shared by definite obligations

Property: Communalism

Foraging: Other Derived Characteristics Egalitarianism No incentive to hoard Social class differences minimal Work time Average: 15-20 hours/week Nonintensive labor with other activities Domestic mode of production: work done until needs are met

Egalitarianism

No incentive to hoard

Social class differences minimal

Work time

Average: 15-20 hours/week

Nonintensive labor with other activities

Domestic mode of production: work done until needs are met

Foragers: Contemporary Ancestors? Some societies may reflect early foragers Qualifications Foragers could be deculturated !Kung may have been herdsman once Reduced to foraging by Bantu expansion Foragers occupy margins of earth Desert (SW Africa, Australia, Nevada basin) Extremely cold regions (Arctic regions)

Some societies may reflect early foragers

Qualifications

Foragers could be deculturated

!Kung may have been herdsman once

Reduced to foraging by Bantu expansion

Foragers occupy margins of earth

Desert (SW Africa, Australia, Nevada basin)

Extremely cold regions (Arctic regions)

Food-Producing Societies First indications: Neolithic ca 10,000 BP In the Fertile Crescent, Near East Characteristics Domestication of Plants (emmer wheat), animals, or both Human control over food production Quantities of food greater than foragers Settled communities (except herders) Increases in population Complex social structures.

First indications: Neolithic ca 10,000 BP

In the Fertile Crescent, Near East

Characteristics

Domestication of Plants (emmer wheat), animals, or both

Human control over food production

Quantities of food greater than foragers

Settled communities (except herders)

Increases in population

Complex social structures.

Horticulture Definition Cultivation of crops Carried out with hand tools Such as digging sticks or hoes Neither plows or irrigation systems are used Best known type of cultivation involves use of slash-and-burn or swidden cultivation

Definition

Cultivation of crops

Carried out with hand tools

Such as digging sticks or hoes

Neither plows or irrigation systems are used

Best known type of cultivation involves use of slash-and-burn or swidden cultivation

Basics of Slash-and-Burn Cultivation A site is cleared of brush and trees Trees are felled, brush stacked Once dried, the brush and trees are set afire (top photo). Planting begins Usually, crops are interplanted Once soil is exhausted, site is abandoned (bottom photo) Cultivators clear a new site

A site is cleared of brush and trees

Trees are felled, brush stacked

Once dried, the brush and trees are set afire (top photo).

Planting begins

Usually, crops are interplanted

Once soil is exhausted, site is abandoned (bottom photo)

Cultivators clear a new site

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Adaptive Significance Most slash-and-burn cultivation is practiced in the tropics Tropical climate is extremely hard on soils Intense heat Heavy rainfall Chemical reaction from heat and rain Slash-and-burn is best adapted to this climate--which the following will show

Most slash-and-burn cultivation is practiced in the tropics

Tropical climate is extremely hard on soils

Intense heat

Heavy rainfall

Chemical reaction from heat and rain

Slash-and-burn is best adapted to this climate--which the following will show

Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Intense Heat Plant and animal matter decompose to form humus or topsoil Humus formatio virtually stops if soil reaches 77 degrees Fahrenheit Decomposition of humus exceed formation Humic materials break down to gases: ammonia, nitrogen, carbon dioxide Gases escape into the atmosphere

Plant and animal matter decompose to form humus or topsoil

Humus formatio virtually stops if soil reaches 77 degrees Fahrenheit

Decomposition of humus exceed formation

Humic materials break down to gases: ammonia, nitrogen, carbon dioxide

Gases escape into the atmosphere

Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Rainfall Rainfall acts on the soil in two ways Erosion: Rainfall carries away soil particles Particles themselves scour surface] Abrasion carries off even more soil Leaching Warm water dissolves water-soluble nutrients Nutrients seep into subsoil

Rainfall acts on the soil in two ways

Erosion:

Rainfall carries away soil particles

Particles themselves scour surface]

Abrasion carries off even more soil

Leaching

Warm water dissolves water-soluble nutrients

Nutrients seep into subsoil

Constants of Tropical Rainforest: Laterization Laterite: the oxides of minerals Such as iron oxide at top layer (photo) Combined heat and moisture creates oxides Process is irreversible Removes phosphorus, an essential nutrient Cannot absorb other nutrients

Laterite: the oxides of minerals

Such as iron oxide at top layer (photo)

Combined heat and moisture creates oxides

Process is irreversible

Removes phosphorus, an essential nutrient

Cannot absorb other nutrients

A Long-Term Constant: Age of Soil This process has been going for centuries Soil is mostly clay and sand Plant and animal life is limited in protein Most plants reproduce by vegetative means Seeds involve large amounts of protein Animals are small Gregarious (herding) animals are rare

This process has been going for centuries

Soil is mostly clay and sand

Plant and animal life is limited in protein

Most plants reproduce by vegetative means

Seeds involve large amounts of protein

Animals are small

Gregarious (herding) animals are rare

Adaptation of Tropical Rainforests Protective canopy of leaves and epiphytic plants Rate of growth Juxtaposition of different types of trees

Protective canopy of leaves and epiphytic plants

Rate of growth

Juxtaposition of different types of trees

Protective Canopy Mature forests contain trees with thick foliage at their tops Thick network of leafy branches Epiphytic plants that derive nutrients from rain and air Protective functions Provide protective shade from sun, allowing humus to accumulate Lessens action and amount of rainfall

Mature forests contain trees with thick foliage at their tops

Thick network of leafy branches

Epiphytic plants that derive nutrients from rain and air

Protective functions

Provide protective shade from sun, allowing humus to accumulate

Lessens action and amount of rainfall

Rate of Growth Rate of growth is spectacular Enables rapid use of nutrients before they disappear through erosion or leaching Litter fall of animal remains and dead vegetation Is four times of woodland in New York state Rainfall also captures nutrients from air 75% of potassium in soil, 40% of magnesium, and 25% of phosphorus come from rainwater

Rate of growth is spectacular

Enables rapid use of nutrients before they disappear through erosion or leaching

Litter fall of animal remains and dead vegetation

Is four times of woodland in New York state

Rainfall also captures nutrients from air

75% of potassium in soil, 40% of magnesium, and 25% of phosphorus come from rainwater

Species Juxtaposition Different tree species have different nutrient requirements Some require more phosphorus than others Other require more potassium Nutrient left by one tree is taken by others Dispersal of same species is protection against pests and diseases

Different tree species have different nutrient requirements

Some require more phosphorus than others

Other require more potassium

Nutrient left by one tree is taken by others

Dispersal of same species is protection against pests and diseases

Clean clearing would Compact the soil due to heavy rainfall Erosion via runoff would increase Minimize or eliminate formation of humus Leach the soil Convert the soil into laterite Overall: reduce its fertility

Compact the soil due to heavy rainfall

Erosion via runoff would increase

Minimize or eliminate formation of humus

Leach the soil

Convert the soil into laterite

Overall: reduce its fertility

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Technique Review of distinctive features Cutting and burning vegetation prior to planting Shifting to new site after 2 or 3 crops Mundurucú practices Site selection: sloping, well-drained area Clearing Removal of shrubs and small trees Felling of trees by keystone method

Review of distinctive features

Cutting and burning vegetation prior to planting

Shifting to new site after 2 or 3 crops

Mundurucú practices

Site selection: sloping, well-drained area

Clearing

Removal of shrubs and small trees

Felling of trees by keystone method

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation Technique: Burning and Planting Mundurucú practices (con’t) Burning Vegetation allowed to dry: 2 months Fire set on day of slight breeze to fan flames Planting Begins at first rains: no cultivation Hole made with digging stick Cuttings or seeds inserted and covered Manioc and sweet potatoes in center Other crops planted at edges

Mundurucú practices (con’t)

Burning

Vegetation allowed to dry: 2 months

Fire set on day of slight breeze to fan flames

Planting

Begins at first rains: no cultivation

Hole made with digging stick

Cuttings or seeds inserted and covered

Manioc and sweet potatoes in center

Other crops planted at edges

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation: Weeding and Harvest Weeding Done twice during growing season Harvest Planting is staggered; so is harvesting Harvesting done as need arises Entire crop is not removed at one time Manioc replanted immediately after harvest to ensure permanent supply

Weeding

Done twice during growing season

Harvest

Planting is staggered; so is harvesting

Harvesting done as need arises

Entire crop is not removed at one time

Manioc replanted immediately after harvest to ensure permanent supply

Slash-and-Burn Cultivation as Imitation of Rainforest Crops are intermixed, each with different nutrient requirements Reduces competition for same nutrient Dispersal of same plants retard disease, pests Staggering planting and harvest minimizes soil exposure Burning slash returns nutrients to soil

Crops are intermixed, each with different nutrient requirements

Reduces competition for same nutrient

Dispersal of same plants retard disease, pests

Staggering planting and harvest minimizes soil exposure

Burning slash returns nutrients to soil

Slash and Burn Cultivation as Imperfect Imitation of Rainforest Decomposition of stumps and branches Attract pests away from crops Supply added nutrients Weeding of mixed value Minimizes competition for nutrients Reduces shade and protection from erosion Imitation not the real thing Yield declines by 3rd year--time to move

Decomposition of stumps and branches

Attract pests away from crops

Supply added nutrients

Weeding of mixed value

Minimizes competition for nutrients

Reduces shade and protection from erosion

Imitation not the real thing

Yield declines by 3rd year--time to move

Yanomamo Variations Techniques essentially the same Plantains augment manioc as staple When soil deteriorates Thorny shrubs grow, scratching bare skin Some plants continue yields New clearing is made adjacent to old site Done so over the years New sites cleared only under compulsion

Techniques essentially the same

Plantains augment manioc as staple

When soil deteriorates

Thorny shrubs grow, scratching bare skin

Some plants continue yields

New clearing is made adjacent to old site

Done so over the years

New sites cleared only under compulsion

The Protein debate Harris: arises when game is scarce Chagnon: conflict sparked by abduction of women Good: Weighed every game animal on scale Weighed every Yanomamo villager Findings: Yanomamo were short on protein Could not link this fact with warfare Debate remains open: Tierney’s view

Harris: arises when game is scarce

Chagnon: conflict sparked by abduction of women

Good:

Weighed every game animal on scale

Weighed every Yanomamo villager

Findings: Yanomamo were short on protein

Could not link this fact with warfare

Debate remains open: Tierney’s view

Intensive Cultivation Definition Embers’: Food production characterized by the permanent cultivation of fields Primary attributes Technology Irrigation Plow Staple crops: rice, corn, wheat, potatoes Risks of famine through disease, pests

Definition

Embers’: Food production characterized by the permanent cultivation of fields

Primary attributes

Technology

Irrigation

Plow

Staple crops: rice, corn, wheat, potatoes

Risks of famine through disease, pests

Intensive Cultivation: Secondary Attributes Permanent settlements of high density Emergence of full-time nonfarm occupations Rise of specialization and trade Rise of complex societies Cities Stratification Codified Law States and the military

Permanent settlements of high density

Emergence of full-time nonfarm occupations

Rise of specialization and trade

Rise of complex societies

Cities

Stratification

Codified Law

States and the military

Pastoralism Definition Animal husbandry as the main or sole source of subsistence Animals: cattle, horses, sheep, goats, camels All parts of animal is consumed Meat and dairy products, blood Hides Even dung for fire and building material

Definition

Animal husbandry as the main or sole source of subsistence

Animals: cattle, horses, sheep, goats, camels

All parts of animal is consumed

Meat and dairy products, blood

Hides

Even dung for fire and building material

Pastoralism: Secondary Characteristics Environment: semi-arid grasslands; other regions unsuitable for agriculture Nomadic: Transhumance: seasonal migration between different environmental zones. Property and valuables are portable Dependence on settled communities Agriculture and manufactured products Mixed economy lessens dependence

Environment: semi-arid grasslands; other regions unsuitable for agriculture

Nomadic:

Transhumance: seasonal migration between different environmental zones.

Property and valuables are portable

Dependence on settled communities

Agriculture and manufactured products

Mixed economy lessens dependence

Pastoralism: Secondary Characteristics (Con’t) Warfare Raid of villages or other nomads Predatory states: Mongols Warrior age grades in East Africa Male dominance Warfare required male cooperation Animals are male property Residence is patrilocal Women have few rights

Warfare

Raid of villages or other nomads

Predatory states: Mongols

Warrior age grades in East Africa

Male dominance

Warfare required male cooperation

Animals are male property

Residence is patrilocal

Women have few rights

Pastoralism: Conclusion Incomplete food producers Animals, not plants, are domesticated Archaeological evidence suggest Pastoralism postdates cultivation. May have left settled regions By choice by force Probably not a transitional form between foraging and agriculture

Incomplete food producers

Animals, not plants, are domesticated

Archaeological evidence suggest

Pastoralism postdates cultivation.

May have left settled regions

By choice

by force

Probably not a transitional form between foraging and agriculture

Equestrian Hunting Definition Use of animals (horse reindeer) To hunt other animals (bison, reindeer) A rare phenomenon Plains Indians hunting complex was not indigenous before 18th century Native horses died off long before contact Sources: stray horses lost by Spaniards

Definition

Use of animals (horse reindeer)

To hunt other animals (bison, reindeer)

A rare phenomenon

Plains Indians hunting complex was not indigenous before 18th century

Native horses died off long before contact

Sources: stray horses lost by Spaniards

Equestrian Hunting: Characteristics Similar to pastoralism Environment: grassland rendered unsuitable for hoe agriculture by sod Bison moved seasonally Large herds in spring and summer Scattered in late fall and winter Tribes moved accordingly Reminiscent of transhumance

Similar to pastoralism

Environment: grassland rendered unsuitable for hoe agriculture by sod

Bison moved seasonally

Large herds in spring and summer

Scattered in late fall and winter

Tribes moved accordingly

Reminiscent of transhumance

Equestrian hunting: Warlike Attributes Higher mobility using horse increased military superiority Settle peoples may have adopted horse in self-defense A causal factor: trade with whites Competition for trade center access Even more buffalo hunted for trade Horse theft for another trade good Valued trade item: guns

Higher mobility using horse increased military superiority

Settle peoples may have adopted horse in self-defense

A causal factor: trade with whites

Competition for trade center access

Even more buffalo hunted for trade

Horse theft for another trade good

Valued trade item: guns

Subsistence, Adaptation, and Evolution Cultural materialism : A research strategy (or plan) holding that causal explanations for similarities and differences among human groups can best be addressed by studying the harnessing of energy Through interaction between existing technology And environmental limitations

Cultural materialism :

A research strategy (or plan)

holding that causal explanations

for similarities and differences among human groups

can best be addressed by studying the harnessing of energy

Through interaction between existing technology

And environmental limitations

Unilineal and Multilineal Evoluton Models of Cultural Evolution Unilineal Evolution (Left) All societies go through set stages (foraging, horticulture, agriculture) Multilineal Evolution Societies adapt evolution according to Environment Techniques of subsistence

Models of Cultural Evolution

Unilineal Evolution (Left)

All societies go through set stages (foraging, horticulture, agriculture)

Multilineal Evolution

Societies adapt evolution according to

Environment

Techniques of subsistence

Technology, Environment, and Society Environment: Limits and Potential to Energy Technology: Known Techniques for Energy Capture and Use Social Interactions: Derivative Family/Kinship, Economic, Political, and Legal Institutions Ideology: Psychological State, Supernatural Beliefs, The Arts

Environment: Limits and Potential to Energy

Technology: Known Techniques for Energy Capture and Use

Social Interactions: Derivative Family/Kinship, Economic, Political, and Legal Institutions

Ideology: Psychological State, Supernatural Beliefs, The Arts

Comparison and Evaluation Examined five broad subsistence systems. Examined the implications of each on a society and culture Traced their significance in Local and regional adaptations (cultural ecology) Universal cultural evolution Within intellectual historical context

Examined five broad subsistence systems.

Examined the implications of each on a society and culture

Traced their significance in

Local and regional adaptations (cultural ecology)

Universal cultural evolution

Within intellectual historical context