Northwest Coast Indians Kwakiutl, Haida, and their Neighbors

Location of the Northwest Coast Native peoples ranged from N. Oregon through British Columbia and Southern Alaska Best Known: Kwakiutl (“Kwagiutl”) of Vancouver Island Haida of the Queen Charlotte Islands Tlingit of Southern Alaska Others: Salish, Nootka, Bella Coola, Tsimshian

Native peoples ranged from N. Oregon through British Columbia and Southern Alaska

Best Known:

Kwakiutl (“Kwagiutl”) of Vancouver Island

Haida of the Queen Charlotte Islands

Tlingit of Southern Alaska

Others: Salish, Nootka, Bella Coola, Tsimshian

Northwest Coast Natives as Complex Foragers Simple foragers retain a relatively simple society What if, however, you can yield large amounts of food without agriculture? This is what we find in the Northwest Coast There were regular salmon and candlefish runs They could be preserved by smoking (salmon) or rendering (oil) There were other abundant food sources They were complex foragers

Simple foragers retain a relatively simple society

What if, however, you can yield large amounts of food without agriculture?

This is what we find in the Northwest Coast

There were regular salmon and candlefish runs

They could be preserved by smoking (salmon) or rendering (oil)

There were other abundant food sources

They were complex foragers

Complex Foraging: Primary Characteristics Food source dependence is still direct Food sources now are richer Big game in Old and New World Pleistocene Contemporary example: Salmon complex in NW Coast societies Variance still occurs by season and location Carrying capacity is higher Minimum specified in Liebig’s Law is higher But sources can fluctuate by year, season, and location

Food source dependence is still direct

Food sources now are richer

Big game in Old and New World Pleistocene

Contemporary example: Salmon complex in NW Coast societies

Variance still occurs by season and location

Carrying capacity is higher

Minimum specified in Liebig’s Law is higher

But sources can fluctuate by year, season, and location

Complex Foraging: Derived Characteristics Sedentary communities Depend on stability and richness of resources Need not rely only on domestication Assemblage of Tools and Artifacts Multiply in number Multiply in type (specialization) Populations increase Societies become more complex This analysis applied to Northwest Coast peoples

Sedentary communities

Depend on stability and richness of resources

Need not rely only on domestication

Assemblage of Tools and Artifacts

Multiply in number

Multiply in type (specialization)

Populations increase

Societies become more complex

This analysis applied to Northwest Coast peoples

Subsistence Base of Northwest Coast Salmon, caught in their annual runs upstream, were preserved by smoking Candlefish (olachen), a greasy fish whose oils provide heat, light, and cooking Other fish, such as cod and halibut Sea mammals, such as otter, seals, and (among the Nootka) whales Land mammals, such as deer, elk, bear, and caribou (northern regions) Berries, pine nuts, roots, and greens in season.

Salmon, caught in their annual runs upstream, were preserved by smoking

Candlefish (olachen), a greasy fish whose oils provide heat, light, and cooking

Other fish, such as cod and halibut

Sea mammals, such as otter, seals, and (among the Nootka) whales

Land mammals, such as deer, elk, bear, and caribou (northern regions)

Berries, pine nuts, roots, and greens in season.

Salmon: The Staple Source Every fall, salmons run up the major rivers to spawn, then return to the sea Using nets and weirs (fish traps), the fishers catch prodigious amounts of salmon The salmon are sliced in half, put on racks to dry in smokehouses and sheds The salmon will keep during the winter

Every fall, salmons run up the major rivers to spawn, then return to the sea

Using nets and weirs (fish traps), the fishers catch prodigious amounts of salmon

The salmon are sliced in half, put on racks to dry in smokehouses and sheds

The salmon will keep during the winter

Candlefish (Olachan) Candlefish are very oily fish; it is said that a dried candlefish can burn like a candle when lit Runs began in the early spring and were caught by nets Their oil was rendered and stored in leakproof wooden bins The oil provides heat and light It is also used as a preservative Oil was a valuable trade item

Candlefish are very oily fish; it is said that a dried candlefish can burn like a candle when lit

Runs began in the early spring and were caught by nets

Their oil was rendered and stored in leakproof wooden bins

The oil provides heat and light

It is also used as a preservative

Oil was a valuable trade item

Other Food Sources During the spring and summer, other fish were obtained by net The Nootka hunted whales in large seagoing canoes; other northwest coast Indians relied on beached whales Game was hunted inland, exploited for meat but especially for hides Berries, roots, seeds, and nuts were picked in season

During the spring and summer, other fish were obtained by net

The Nootka hunted whales in large seagoing canoes; other northwest coast Indians relied on beached whales

Game was hunted inland, exploited for meat but especially for hides

Berries, roots, seeds, and nuts were picked in season

Winter Activities Some hunting took place during the winter Most activities were confined in the villages This was the period of feasting (assuming substantial yield in the preceding summer) Potlatches (major feasts) marking important events were held at that time

Some hunting took place during the winter

Most activities were confined in the villages

This was the period of feasting (assuming substantial yield in the preceding summer)

Potlatches (major feasts) marking important events were held at that time

Scarcity and Fluctuating Resources Not all rivers supported salmon or olachan runs. Many areas were short of other resources They could vary seasonally Result: not all years were abundant and some groups might help others in time of need This was also the cause of warfare, and competition for resource-rich areas was common

Not all rivers supported salmon or olachan runs.

Many areas were short of other resources

They could vary seasonally

Result: not all years were abundant and some groups might help others in time of need

This was also the cause of warfare, and competition for resource-rich areas was common

Woodcraft The Northwest Coast Indians were expert woodcrafters—carvers and builders The region is densely forested and wood is in plentiful supply Products: seagoing canoes, longhouses, “totem poles” (signifying the lineage and clans), decorated boxes, and many more (upper left) They were also expert in carving on stone, ivory, and bone. The thunderbird was a perennial totemic symbol among the Kwakiutl (lower left)

The Northwest Coast Indians were expert woodcrafters—carvers and builders

The region is densely forested and wood is in plentiful supply

Products: seagoing canoes, longhouses, “totem poles” (signifying the lineage and clans), decorated boxes, and many more (upper left)

They were also expert in carving on stone, ivory, and bone.

The thunderbird was a perennial totemic symbol among the Kwakiutl (lower left)

Social Organization: Kwakiutl Social organization varied by location The Kwakiutl lived on east Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland of British Columbis The Kwakiutl were organized by patrilineal groups known as numaym They could be flexible and valuables could be inherited through females or obtain through marriage Thus numaym had bilateral attributes and were often flexible

Social organization varied by location

The Kwakiutl lived on east Vancouver Island and the adjacent mainland of British Columbis

The Kwakiutl were organized by patrilineal groups known as numaym

They could be flexible and valuables could be inherited through females or obtain through marriage

Thus numaym had bilateral attributes and were often flexible

Social Organization: Northern Groups The northern chiefdoms included the: Haida on the Queen Charlotte Islands Tsimshian in northern British Columbia, and Tlingit of Southern Alaska They were organized into matrilineages Descent was traced through the females Their social organization was much more rigid than the Kwakiutl

The northern chiefdoms included the:

Haida on the Queen Charlotte Islands

Tsimshian in northern British Columbia, and

Tlingit of Southern Alaska

They were organized into matrilineages

Descent was traced through the females

Their social organization was much more rigid than the Kwakiutl

Five Levels of Social Organization Family: nuclear families of father, mother, and children House group: units residing in a common house Lineages: varied by tribe—matrilineal, patrilineal, and sometime bilaterally Villages: basic political units, led by a chief Supravillage “intergroup collectivities”: alliances based on common concerns—warfare, resource control, ceremonial exchange

Family: nuclear families of father, mother, and children

House group: units residing in a common house

Lineages: varied by tribe—matrilineal, patrilineal, and sometime bilaterally

Villages: basic political units, led by a chief

Supravillage “intergroup collectivities”: alliances based on common concerns—warfare, resource control, ceremonial exchange

Family Households The family unit is the smallest unit among all Northwest Coast societies Most foraging, production of tools and clothing, and basic activities are carried out through the family They act individually during summer foraging

The family unit is the smallest unit among all Northwest Coast societies

Most foraging, production of tools and clothing, and basic activities are carried out through the family

They act individually during summer foraging

House Groups Communal functions centered around the multifamily house, a large wooden structure or set of wooden structures Many functions were conducted at that level: drying and smoking salmon, maintaining and using fishing equipment, rendering oil, making and maintaining canoes Labor and products contributed to the local chief were mobilized by the house group

Communal functions centered around the multifamily house, a large wooden structure or set of wooden structures

Many functions were conducted at that level: drying and smoking salmon, maintaining and using fishing equipment, rendering oil, making and maintaining canoes

Labor and products contributed to the local chief were mobilized by the house group

Productive Activities of House Group Women formed the productive unit in the house group They cared for children, made the clothing, smoked the salmon, rendered the oil, and kept the stores of blankets, clothing, and later money Men’s work: toolmaker, carver of wood posts and so-called totem poles, builder of canoes, and all else involving construction, carving, and ornaments

Women formed the productive unit in the house group

They cared for children, made the clothing, smoked the salmon, rendered the oil, and kept the stores of blankets, clothing, and later money

Men’s work: toolmaker, carver of wood posts and so-called totem poles, builder of canoes, and all else involving construction, carving, and ornaments

Women and House Group Women’s role in drying salmon, base of both subsistence and luxury wealth, gave them a great deal of power The importance of women contributed to the matrilineal and matrilocal structure of the northern groups It also may have contributed toward the bilateral bias of the Kwakiutl numaym. Women of high class often owned the house and sponsored potlatches in their own right

Women’s role in drying salmon, base of both subsistence and luxury wealth, gave them a great deal of power

The importance of women contributed to the matrilineal and matrilocal structure of the northern groups

It also may have contributed toward the bilateral bias of the Kwakiutl numaym.

Women of high class often owned the house and sponsored potlatches in their own right

Lineages and Clans The Kwakiutl numaym or numaymna was used as a gloss to refer to the clans and lineages of all societies A single lineage might dominate a village, with all members as co-owners Lineage membership is flexible, and one could join two or more lineages Lineages could also extend across village boundaries Served to facilitate trade and ceremonial relationships between village Also served to mitigate warfare

The Kwakiutl numaym or numaymna was used as a gloss to refer to the clans and lineages of all societies

A single lineage might dominate a village, with all members as co-owners

Lineage membership is flexible, and one could join two or more lineages

Lineages could also extend across village boundaries

Served to facilitate trade and ceremonial relationships between village

Also served to mitigate warfare

Village and Chiefdoms: Role of the Chief 1 Villages regulated the affairs and resources in the village Chiefs retained influence and sometimes control over the resources of the house group Organized a complex economy with his own specialists and large scale capital Organized the construction of dams, weirs, and defensive structures Regulated the use of the salmon fisheries to prevent overuse and depletion of salmon

Villages regulated the affairs and resources in the village

Chiefs retained influence and sometimes control over the resources of the house group

Organized a complex economy with his own specialists and large scale capital

Organized the construction of dams, weirs, and defensive structures

Regulated the use of the salmon fisheries to prevent overuse and depletion of salmon

Village and Chiefdoms: Role of the Chief 2 Maintains storehouses to support specialists, pay debts, make loans, and other functions Requires the Native version of taxation: a successful fisher or hunter must give one-fifth to one half of his catch to the chief In return, the chief provides for the common needs of the community—like feasts—and to pay his specialists. Finally, he sponsors large, interregional ceremonies, such as the potlatch

Maintains storehouses to support specialists, pay debts, make loans, and other functions

Requires the Native version of taxation: a successful fisher or hunter must give one-fifth to one half of his catch to the chief

In return, the chief provides for the common needs of the community—like feasts—and to pay his specialists.

Finally, he sponsors large, interregional ceremonies, such as the potlatch

Village: Big Man or Chief? The book argues that a big man dominated the village polity The authors’ reasoning: the chief relies on group of loyal followers, whose loyalty is not assured. Problem with the analysis: the chief has an established rule of succession It is a system of permanent positions that must be filled. It is a ranked society divided between elite, commoners, and slaves This is not like the big man of New Guinea, which is subject to competition from other big men in the tribe For this reason, we use “Chief” rather than Big Man.

The book argues that a big man dominated the village polity

The authors’ reasoning: the chief relies on group of loyal followers, whose loyalty is not assured.

Problem with the analysis: the chief has an established rule of succession

It is a system of permanent positions that must be filled.

It is a ranked society divided between elite, commoners, and slaves

This is not like the big man of New Guinea, which is subject to competition from other big men in the tribe

For this reason, we use “Chief” rather than Big Man.

Defining the Potlatch Refers to ceremonies in which an important event was celebrated Occasions: the installment of a new chief, the naming ceremonies, the announcement of a new heir Prior to the epidemics, the ceremony was simply to celebrate an important event It brought several tribes together There were several ritual dances in the first part of the ceremony Then the chief would arise and give a speech The gifts were then distributed, the value matching the rank of the recipient The guests then arose and acknowledged the performance of the host chief

Refers to ceremonies in which an important event was celebrated

Occasions: the installment of a new chief, the naming ceremonies, the announcement of a new heir

Prior to the epidemics, the ceremony was simply to celebrate an important event

It brought several tribes together

There were several ritual dances in the first part of the ceremony

Then the chief would arise and give a speech

The gifts were then distributed, the value matching the rank of the recipient

The guests then arose and acknowledged the performance of the host chief

Rivalry Potlatch: Epidemics What Johnson and Earle describe is the rivalry potlatch Like other indigenous populations, diseases were introduced against which they had no immunity Indications are that the population declined by up to 90% in the nineteenth century For the Kwakiutl, the population declined from 3500 in 1853 to 1345 for 1903 In any case, there were far more titles than for people to assume them Some were more valued than others, and those were the object of competition

What Johnson and Earle describe is the rivalry potlatch

Like other indigenous populations, diseases were introduced against which they had no immunity

Indications are that the population declined by up to 90% in the nineteenth century

For the Kwakiutl, the population declined from 3500 in 1853 to 1345 for 1903

In any case, there were far more titles than for people to assume them

Some were more valued than others, and those were the object of competition

Rival Potlatch: Increased Competitiveness As disease spread, the successors were wiped out As a result, it was not clear who should be the next chief or to inherit the most valued title To prove their worth, each chief competed by giving a large gift—stacks of blankets, copper plates, even slaves—to his rival The rival could not refuse these gifts, but had to return larger amounts as “interest” Either the rival did so, or he would be “crushed,” ceding the contest to the challenger Because of the unrest they caused, Canadian authorities outlawed the potlatch

As disease spread, the successors were wiped out

As a result, it was not clear who should be the next chief or to inherit the most valued title

To prove their worth, each chief competed by giving a large gift—stacks of blankets, copper plates, even slaves—to his rival

The rival could not refuse these gifts, but had to return larger amounts as “interest”

Either the rival did so, or he would be “crushed,” ceding the contest to the challenger

Because of the unrest they caused, Canadian authorities outlawed the potlatch

Conclusion It is a myth that the potlatch described in the book always existed, long before the traders Drucker points out that the potlatch was one way to cement intervillage relations It served to expand trade and mimimize warfare It is one example of how a chiefdom could develop on a subsistence system based on fishing and hunting—and not on agriculture

It is a myth that the potlatch described in the book always existed, long before the traders

Drucker points out that the potlatch was one way to cement intervillage relations

It served to expand trade and mimimize warfare

It is one example of how a chiefdom could develop on a subsistence system based on fishing and hunting—and not on agriculture