Linguistics Descriptive Linguistics and Culture

Communication Most animals have some form of communication Definition: Ability of one organism to trigger another Counterexample: Bouncer tosses out unruly patron Counterexample: Sun’s rays wakens sleeper Entails stimulus and response

Most animals have some form of communication

Definition: Ability of one organism to trigger another

Counterexample: Bouncer tosses out unruly patron

Counterexample: Sun’s rays wakens sleeper

Entails stimulus and response

Overview of Linguistics Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory System Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Phonemes Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntax Language and Animal Communication Language and Culture

Biological Roots of Language: Brain and Articulatory System

Descriptive Linguistics: Phones and Phonemes

Descriptive Linguistics: Morphology and Syntax

Language and Animal Communication

Language and Culture

The International Phonetic Alphabet How many vowels are there in English? Our written language is not entirely phonetic The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in bat Or how about [e] as in bated breath? Or try [a] as in bah or “say ah” We have 12 vowels That means in linguistics we need 12 symbols to transcribe them

How many vowels are there in English?

Our written language is not entirely phonetic

The letter a could be pronounced as [æ] in bat

Or how about [e] as in bated breath?

Or try [a] as in bah or “say ah”

We have 12 vowels

That means in linguistics we need 12 symbols to transcribe them

The IPA: How It Works First, there are phones , any speech sound The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a sound So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] for “bat” Square brackets are used to enclose phones If the sounds carry a language, they are known as phonemes (more shortly) These are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/

First, there are phones , any speech sound

The IPA ideally assigns one symbol to a sound

So [a] is used for “ah,” [e] for “bated,” [æ] for “bat”

Square brackets are used to enclose phones

If the sounds carry a language, they are known as phonemes (more shortly)

These are enclosed in slashes (//), e.g. /a/

A Sample Set of Phones and Phonemes We will use a sample of six consonants known as stops: [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g] First, we have to look at some preliminaries: The speech mechanism (brain, lungs, larynx, and oral cavity) Then how speech is articulated

We will use a sample of six consonants known as stops:

[p], [b], [t], [d], [k], and [g]

First, we have to look at some preliminaries:

The speech mechanism (brain, lungs, larynx, and oral cavity)

Then how speech is articulated

Biological Roots of Language: The Brain and Nervous System Broca’s Area Wernicke’s Area Arcuate Fasciculus Angular Gyrus Hypoglossal Nerve

Broca’s Area

Wernicke’s Area

Arcuate Fasciculus

Angular Gyrus

Hypoglossal Nerve

Vocal Tract Lungs Diaphragm Larynx and Vocal Cords Hyoid Bone Oral Cavity Nasal Cavity

Lungs

Diaphragm

Larynx and Vocal Cords

Hyoid Bone

Oral Cavity

Nasal Cavity

Articulatory Phonetics When we utter any sound, we articulate We position our tongue or other speech part in certain ways When we speak, we use Points of articulation : Speech parts in upper half of mouth Articulators: Speech parts in lower half of mouth

When we utter any sound, we articulate

We position our tongue or other speech part in certain ways

When we speak, we use

Points of articulation : Speech parts in upper half of mouth

Articulators: Speech parts in lower half of mouth

Oral Cavity

Points of Articulation All are immovable except upper lip Upper lip Upper teeth Alveolar ridge (gum ridge behind teeth) Hard palate (roof of mouth) Velum (soft palate) Uvula (pendant lobe at border of velum)

All are immovable except upper lip

Upper lip

Upper teeth

Alveolar ridge (gum ridge behind teeth)

Hard palate (roof of mouth)

Velum (soft palate)

Uvula (pendant lobe at border of velum)

Articulators All articulators are movable They include: Lower lip Lower teeth Tongue Apex (tip) Front Center Back (dorsum )

All articulators are movable

They include:

Lower lip

Lower teeth

Tongue

Apex (tip)

Front

Center

Back (dorsum )

Other Speech Parts Larynx , or voice box which contains Two Vocal Cords (upper left) When vocal cords are drawn tight (lower right), they produce a voice When relaxed (lower left), no voice is produced. Other species and infant: larynx is high on throat Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones produced by lowering of velum

Larynx , or voice box which contains

Two Vocal Cords (upper left)

When vocal cords are drawn tight (lower right), they produce a voice

When relaxed (lower left), no voice is produced.

Other species and infant: larynx is high on throat

Nasal Cavity: Nasalized phones produced by lowering of velum

Position of Articulation For consonants , position of articulator relative to point of articulation For vowels, resonant sounds created by position of tongue (high, mid, or low) lip shape (rounded or unrounded Consonants include: Stops (momentary stop of air stream) Fricatives or Spirants (constricted passage of air) Others, such as laterals, nasals, et al.

For consonants , position of articulator relative to point of articulation

For vowels, resonant sounds created by

position of tongue (high, mid, or low)

lip shape (rounded or unrounded

Consonants include:

Stops (momentary stop of air stream)

Fricatives or Spirants (constricted passage of air)

Others, such as laterals, nasals, et al.

Positions of Articulation: Stops A stop is formed when an articulator touches a point of articulation halting the air stream momentarily A stop is named By naming the articulator first Then naming the point of articulation Examples: labio-labial, apico-alveolar, and dorso-velar stops

A stop is formed when

an articulator touches

a point of articulation

halting the air stream momentarily

A stop is named

By naming the articulator first

Then naming the point of articulation

Examples: labio-labial, apico-alveolar, and dorso-velar stops

Bilabial Stops Upper lip is pressed against lower lip Labio- describes the lower lip (articulator) Labial describes the upper lip (point of articulation_ Called bilabial stop for short Example: [p] as in [pın] or pin

Upper lip is pressed against lower lip

Labio- describes the lower lip (articulator)

Labial describes the upper lip (point of articulation_

Called bilabial stop for short

Example: [p] as in [pın] or pin

Apico-Alveolar Stops Tip (apex) of tongue presses against gum ridge (alveolar ridge) behind upper teeth Apico describes apex of tongue (articulator) Alveolar describes alveolar ridge (point of articulation) Example: [t] as in tın] or tin

Tip (apex) of tongue presses against gum ridge (alveolar ridge) behind upper teeth

Apico describes apex of tongue (articulator)

Alveolar describes alveolar ridge (point of articulation)

Example: [t] as in tın] or tin

Dorso-Velar Stops Back (dorsum) of tongue presses against soft palate (velum) Dorso describes dorsal part of tongue (articulator) Velar describes velum (point of articulation) Example: [k] as in [kın] or kin

Back (dorsum) of tongue presses against soft palate (velum)

Dorso describes dorsal part of tongue (articulator)

Velar describes velum (point of articulation)

Example: [k] as in [kın] or kin

Contrasting Sounds Across the board, [p] contrasts with [t] [t] contrasts with [k] [p] contrasts with [k] But there are two bilabial stops: [p] and [b] apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d] dorso-velar stops [k] and [g] Why? What’s going on?

Across the board,

[p] contrasts with [t]

[t] contrasts with [k]

[p] contrasts with [k]

But there are two

bilabial stops: [p] and [b]

apico-alveolar stops: [t] and [d]

dorso-velar stops [k] and [g]

Why? What’s going on?

Voiced and Voiceless Stops One set of stops is voiceless or unvoiced Namely [p], [t], and [k] The other set of stops is voiced [b] the bilabial voiced stop [d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop [t] the voiced dorso-velar stop A small experiment

One set of stops is voiceless or unvoiced

Namely [p], [t], and [k]

The other set of stops is voiced

[b] the bilabial voiced stop

[d] the voiced apico-alveolar stop

[t] the voiced dorso-velar stop

A small experiment

How Vocal Cords Work When vocal cords are relaxed (upper diagram), they produce no voice When drawn tight with a small aperture or hole (lower diagram), they produce a voice That is what causes the throat to vibrate

When vocal cords are relaxed (upper diagram), they produce no voice

When drawn tight with a small aperture or hole (lower diagram), they produce a voice

That is what causes the throat to vibrate

Summing up Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords to produce a sound When unvoiced phones are uttered, the vocal cords are relaxed Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced sounds voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p] voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t] voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]

Voicing involves tightening of vocal cords to produce a sound

When unvoiced phones are uttered, the vocal cords are relaxed

Voiced sounds contrast with unvoiced sounds

voiced [b] contrasts with unvoiced [p]

voiced [d] contrasts with unvoiced [t]

voiced [g] contrasts with unvoiced [k]

Structural Duality I: Phonemes The sounds we described are also phonemes Definition: The smallest significant unit of speech Significance: the speaker can hear the difference. We can hear the difference between [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın]

The sounds we described are also phonemes

Definition: The smallest significant unit of speech

Significance: the speaker can hear the difference.

We can hear the difference between [bın] and [pın], [dın] and [tın], and [gın] and [kın]

Minimal Pairs [bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference? [tın] and [dın]: same question [gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs? Short answer: the speech environment is identical Only the stops differ the [-ın] utterance is identical

[bın] and [pın]: what’s the difference?

[tın] and [dın]: same question

[gın] and [kın]: Again, what differs?

Short answer: the speech environment is identical

Only the stops differ

the [-ın] utterance is identical

Summary of Phonemic Stops in English Notice that: English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, interdental, or palatal We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and interdental ones [ θ ] and [ð] The Russians have a palatal shop [t j ]. There are numerous others in the world’s languages

Notice that:

English doesn’t have all possible stops: labiodental, interdental, or palatal

We do have labio-dental fricatives {f], [v] and interdental ones [ θ ] and [ð]

The Russians have a palatal shop [t j ].

There are numerous others in the world’s languages

Allophones Another example: key and ski Another experiment: what’s the difference? The differences [k’] in key [k’i] is aspirated [ k ־ ] in ski [sk ־ i] is unaspirated In English, [k’] and [k ־ ] never form minimal pairs Therefore, [k’] and [k ־ ] are allophones

Another example: key and ski

Another experiment: what’s the difference?

The differences

[k’] in key [k’i] is aspirated

[ k ־ ] in ski [sk ־ i] is unaspirated

In English, [k’] and [k ־ ] never form minimal pairs

Therefore, [k’] and [k ־ ] are allophones

Allophones of Phonemes Definition: Variations of the same phoneme Our example: [k’] and [k ־ ] are allophones of the phoneme /k/ Notation: Slash marks (//) indicate phoneme Square brackets ([]) indicates phone (and allophone)

Definition: Variations of the same phoneme

Our example: [k’] and [k ־ ] are allophones of the phoneme /k/

Notation:

Slash marks (//) indicate phoneme

Square brackets ([]) indicates phone (and allophone)

Allophones in One Language: Phonemes in Another Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu are derived): [k’il] and [k ־ il] form minimal pairs [k’il]: “parched grain” [k ־ il]: “small nail”l [-il] is identical as for speech environment Therefore, /k’/ and /k ־ / are phonemes in Old Sanskrit Every language has its own phonemes

Old Sanskrit (from which Hindi and Urdu are derived):

[k’il] and [k ־ il] form minimal pairs

[k’il]: “parched grain”

[k ־ il]: “small nail”l

[-il] is identical as for speech environment

Therefore, /k’/ and /k ־ / are phonemes in Old Sanskrit

Every language has its own phonemes

Phonemes as Structural Duality I Note diagram on board [b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [g] [p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [k] All the voiced stops contrast with unvoiced ones: [b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k] So we have a structure

Note diagram on board

[b] contrasts with [d] which contrasts with [g]

[p] contrasts with [t] which contrasts with [k]

All the voiced stops contrast with unvoiced ones:

[b] with [p], [d] with [t] and [g] with [k]

So we have a structure

Structural Duality II: Morphemes and Syntax Once the phonemes are identified: They must be arranged for meaning Morphemes and Syntax Morphemes: The smallest meaningful unit of speech Syntax: Rules and principles of phrase and sentence construction Grammar: Entire formal structure of a language’s morphemes and syntax

Once the phonemes are identified:

They must be arranged for meaning

Morphemes and Syntax

Morphemes: The smallest meaningful unit of speech

Syntax: Rules and principles of phrase and sentence construction

Grammar: Entire formal structure of a language’s morphemes and syntax

Morphemes Morphology: Study of morphemes and their construction into words Types of morphemes Free morphemes: Morphemes that can stand unattached in a language: cat Bound morphemes: Morphemes that cannot stand unattached in a language: cat s Inflectional bound morphemes : those that change number or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, cat s Derivational bound morphemes: those that change the meaning : e.g., part, part y

Morphology: Study of morphemes and their construction into words

Types of morphemes

Free morphemes: Morphemes that can stand unattached in a language: cat

Bound morphemes: Morphemes that cannot stand unattached in a language: cat s

Inflectional bound morphemes : those that change number or tense, but not meaning: e.g., cat, cat s

Derivational bound morphemes: those that change the meaning : e.g., part, part y

Allomorphs Allomorphs: Variants of a morpheme Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, horses Others: tooth/teeth; sheep/sheep Morphophonemics : Study of allomorphs

Allomorphs: Variants of a morpheme

Examples: plurals of dogs, cats, horses

Others: tooth/teeth; sheep/sheep

Morphophonemics : Study of allomorphs

Syntax: Parts of Speech Describes rules and principles of phrase and sentence construction. Parts of speech are similar to those in high school grammar Noun: Word referring to a person, place, or thing Pronoun: Word that replaces a noun or other pronoun Verb: Action word

Describes rules and principles of phrase and sentence construction.

Parts of speech are similar to those in high school grammar

Noun: Word referring to a person, place, or thing

Pronoun: Word that replaces a noun or other pronoun

Verb: Action word

Syntax: More Parts of Speech Adjective: Word that modifies nouns Adverb: Word that modifies a verb, an adjective, and another adverbs Preposition: Word that indicates a relation between an object in time, space, or logic to the rest of a sentence Conjunction : Word connecting words or groups of words Interjection: Word that expresses feelings, but usually not part of a sentence.

Adjective: Word that modifies nouns

Adverb: Word that modifies a verb, an adjective, and another adverbs

Preposition: Word that indicates a relation between an object in time, space, or logic to the rest of a sentence

Conjunction : Word connecting words or groups of words

Interjection: Word that expresses feelings, but usually not part of a sentence.

Syntax and Word Order Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by language: Subject (S): The thing or person of what a sentence is about Predicate (V): Phrase that says something about the subject; always include the verb Verb (O): Action word that forms the main part of the predicate Object: The person or thing affected by the verb In English, the word order is typically S-V-O In Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-O Other languages have other word orders

Word order (sentence, verb, object) vary by language:

Subject (S): The thing or person of what a sentence is about

Predicate (V): Phrase that says something about the subject; always include the verb

Verb (O): Action word that forms the main part of the predicate

Object: The person or thing affected by the verb

In English, the word order is typically S-V-O

In Spanish, the word order is sometimes V-S-O

Other languages have other word orders

So Why Aren’t Morphemes and Syntax Separate Structures? An exercise: cats Two cats (upper photo) Cat’s meow (lower picture: spoken, how do you use the apostrophe?) Rest of sentence defines morpheme Another example “ Cookie, lend me your combs” “ Cookie combs his hair.”

An exercise: cats

Two cats (upper photo)

Cat’s meow (lower picture: spoken, how do you use the apostrophe?)

Rest of sentence defines morpheme

Another example

“ Cookie, lend me your combs”

“ Cookie combs his hair.”

Gesture Call Systems: Kinesics Kinesics: System of analyzing postures, facial expressions, “body language” Gender differences Smiles and frowns See that thumbs up? In other countries, it would mean—well, you know! (Need a hint? Think middle finger)

Kinesics: System of analyzing postures, facial expressions, “body language”

Gender differences

Smiles and frowns

See that thumbs up?

In other countries, it would mean—well, you know!

(Need a hint? Think middle finger)

Gesture Call Systems: Paralanguage Paralanguage: Extralinguistic noises accompanying language Voice qualities: tone, slur (cartoon), other background noises Vocalizations : Identifiable noises turned on and off at short intervals—”uh,” “um”

Paralanguage: Extralinguistic noises accompanying language

Voice qualities: tone, slur (cartoon), other background noises

Vocalizations : Identifiable noises turned on and off at short intervals—”uh,” “um”

More Paralanguage Vocal characteristics: Sound production such as laughing Vocal qualifiers: Tone or pitch-”Get Out!” Segregates: “Shh!” “Oh oh,” “hmmm!” (cartoon) among others

Vocal characteristics: Sound production such as laughing

Vocal qualifiers: Tone or pitch-”Get Out!”

Segregates: “Shh!” “Oh oh,” “hmmm!” (cartoon) among others

Linguistic Change Language Family Group of languages descended from a single ancestral language Example: Indo-European is descended from Proto-Indo-European Glottochronology Technique of reconstructing past language Core vocabulary: Comparing words common to all languages

Language Family

Group of languages descended from a single ancestral language

Example: Indo-European is descended from Proto-Indo-European

Glottochronology

Technique of reconstructing past language

Core vocabulary: Comparing words common to all languages

Ethnolinguistics Definition: Study of relationship between language and culture Named after Edward Sapir (top) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (bottom), the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis states that language, By providing habitual “grooves” of expression Predisposes people to see world in certain ways Thus guiding thinking and behavior

Definition: Study of relationship between language and culture

Named after Edward Sapir (top) and Benjamin Lee Whorf (bottom), the

Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis states that language,

By providing habitual “grooves” of expression

Predisposes people to see world in certain ways

Thus guiding thinking and behavior

Ethnolinguistics: What Comes First? Language or Culture? Example of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis Hopi: Conception of time as processes, not discrete units Nuer: 400 words for cattle U.S. Militaristic vocabulary Chicken and Egg Question Does language condition culture Or does culture condition language?

Example of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Hopi: Conception of time as processes, not discrete units

Nuer: 400 words for cattle

U.S. Militaristic vocabulary

Chicken and Egg Question

Does language condition culture

Or does culture condition language?

Ethnolinguistics: Some Areas of Research Kinship terms: Father or Mother may be extended to uncles and aunts. Gender Meaning of “I’m sorry” Social dialects Example: so-called Ebonics (Afro-American) Regional differences: Beijing vs. Canton

Kinship terms:

Father or Mother may be extended to uncles and aunts.

Gender

Meaning of “I’m sorry”

Social dialects

Example: so-called Ebonics (Afro-American)

Regional differences: Beijing vs. Canton

Code Switching: Martin Luther King Definition: Switching style of speech according to occasion and audience Formal discourse in formal settings (Washington Monument, 1963, I Have a Dream speech) Informal discourse in others (Ebenezer Baptist Church, 1967, anti-Vietnam War speech)

Definition: Switching style of speech according to occasion and audience

Formal discourse in formal settings (Washington Monument, 1963, I Have a Dream speech)

Informal discourse in others (Ebenezer Baptist Church, 1967, anti-Vietnam War speech)

Language Origins Comparison of communication attributes was first step Chimpanzee communication: calls and gestures Indirect evidence Reconstructed anatomy: hyoid bone Endocasts indicating size of cerebrum Control language among others Size indirect indication

Comparison of communication attributes was first step

Chimpanzee communication: calls and gestures

Indirect evidence

Reconstructed anatomy: hyoid bone

Endocasts indicating size of cerebrum

Control language among others

Size indirect indication

Features of Language Shared with Other Species Arbitrariness Productivity Interchangeability Displacement Specialization Cultural Transmission

Arbitrariness

Productivity

Interchangeability

Displacement

Specialization

Cultural Transmission

Arbitrariness Definition: Absence of intrinsic relation between communication element (speech sound) and thing or event to which it refers (referent) Iconic Relationship: Existence of such a relationship between element (e.g. gesture) and its referent Importance: Utterance is not “married” to meaning, such as this gibbon’s warning call

Definition: Absence of intrinsic relation between communication element (speech sound) and thing or event to which it refers (referent)

Iconic Relationship: Existence of such a relationship between element (e.g. gesture) and its referent

Importance: Utterance is not “married” to meaning, such as this gibbon’s warning call

Arbitrariness (Examples) Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not meaningful in and of themselves Meaning emerges when sounds are combined: [kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline, the one who caught a mouse) [tæk] “tack” has another (small nail) [ækt] “act” has a third (dog and pony show) Even then, this string is language specific (English), not intrinsic

Example [k], [æ], and [t] are not meaningful in and of themselves

Meaning emerges when sounds are combined:

[kæt] “cat” has one meaning (feline, the one who caught a mouse)

[tæk] “tack” has another (small nail)

[ækt] “act” has a third (dog and pony show)

Even then, this string is language specific (English), not intrinsic

Arbitrariness (Across Languages) Evidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse Languages Cat has different pronunciations in different languages Similarities are the product of historical contact

Evidence of Arbitrariness: Diverse Languages

Cat has different pronunciations in different languages

Similarities are the product of historical contact

Productivity (Definition) Definition: Capacity for elements of communication system To be combined to form new meanings Which speaker and listener may never have learned before Yet understands perfectly Exercise: pronounce wug then two of them

Definition:

Capacity for elements of communication system

To be combined to form new meanings

Which speaker and listener may never have learned before

Yet understands perfectly

Exercise: pronounce wug then two of them

Productivity (Examples) From Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll (see illustration} ‘ Twas brillig and the sllthy toves Did gyre and gimble in the wabe Identify: The nouns The verbs The adjectives

From Jabberwocky by Lewis Carroll (see illustration}

‘ Twas brillig and the sllthy toves

Did gyre and gimble in the wabe

Identify:

The nouns

The verbs

The adjectives

Productivity (Conclusion) Language drills English: I am, you are. . . Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . . Other species: Bee dance Variations indicate location, direction, and amount of nectar source Speed: proximity or distance of source Angle of body: direction Amount of pollen: amount at source

Language drills

English: I am, you are. . .

Spanish: Yo soy, tu eres. . .

Other species: Bee dance

Variations indicate location, direction, and amount of nectar source

Speed: proximity or distance of source

Angle of body: direction

Amount of pollen: amount at source

Interchangeability Definition: Use of same communication system to send and receive messages Illustrative Counterexample: Three-spined stickleback fish courtship (see diagram) Female elicits male response by presenting distended belly Male performs zigzag dance around female She follow him to nest Male point to nest on arrival Female enters nest, male rubs abdomen, She discharges eggs, and male fertilizes them with sperm

Definition: Use of same communication system to send and receive messages

Illustrative Counterexample: Three-spined stickleback fish courtship (see diagram)

Female elicits male response by presenting distended belly

Male performs zigzag dance around female

She follow him to nest

Male point to nest on arrival

Female enters nest, male rubs abdomen,

She discharges eggs, and male fertilizes them with sperm

Displacement (Definition) Ability to refer to things and events not present, nonvisible, intangible, or nonexistent Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco Not visible: Termites in sealed mound Intangible: math equations, square roots Nonexistent: dragons, unicorns

Ability to refer to things and events not present, nonvisible, intangible, or nonexistent

Not present: Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco

Not visible: Termites in sealed mound

Intangible: math equations, square roots

Nonexistent: dragons, unicorns

Displacement (Importance) Ability to represent unseen parts of world Part of toolmaking ability : to conceive a design (above) Bee Dance Scouting bee gives information on non-present blossoms Direction of dance rel. to sun: indicates direction of source Length of tail waggle: distance of source Other bees act on this information

Ability to represent unseen parts of world

Part of toolmaking ability : to conceive a design (above)

Bee Dance

Scouting bee gives information on non-present blossoms

Direction of dance rel. to sun: indicates direction of source

Length of tail waggle: distance of source

Other bees act on this information

Cultural Transmission Learning of an element of communication (speech sound, gestures) Bees and stickleback acquire behavior genetically Dogs learn by conditioning, do not pass learning on Chimpanzees do learn by imitation and pass it on: e.g., termite fishing.

Learning of an element of communication (speech sound, gestures)

Bees and stickleback acquire behavior genetically

Dogs learn by conditioning, do not pass learning on

Chimpanzees do learn by imitation and pass it on: e.g., termite fishing.

Specialization Definition: Ability to transmit message with minimal physical effort Language is most specialized communication system Examples of unspecialized communication Chimpanzee displays Bee dance Stickleback courtship

Definition: Ability to transmit message with minimal physical effort

Language is most specialized communication system

Examples of unspecialized communication

Chimpanzee displays

Bee dance

Stickleback courtship

Conclusion Language is basis of culture Knowledge of linguistics is prerequisite Descriptive Linguistics Language and Society Culture can condition language Chicken-egg question remains One more technique: content analysis of language

Language is basis of culture

Knowledge of linguistics is prerequisite

Descriptive Linguistics

Language and Society

Culture can condition language

Chicken-egg question remains

One more technique: content analysis of language