Introduction to Anthropology and Physical Anthropology Anthropology 101 Online

What is Anthropology? Derived from the Greek Anthropos (“man” or “human”) and Logos (“logic of” or “science of”) What distinguishes anthropology from other disciplines involving humankind (medicine, sociology, psychology) The definition sums up the difference: the comparative and holistic study of humankind

Derived from the Greek Anthropos (“man” or “human”) and

Logos (“logic of” or “science of”)

What distinguishes anthropology from other disciplines involving humankind (medicine, sociology, psychology)

The definition sums up the difference: the comparative and holistic study of humankind

Anthropology is Comparative It involves comparison: between today’s cultures in the “ethnographic present,” whereby cultures are described as if they still existed—like these !Kung Bushmen in the 1950s (the job of ethnographers or cultural anthropologists) Between cultures that existed through time unrecorded by history—the job of archaeologists Between related species of the hominid family and hominin subfamily—Like “Lucy” according to this artist’s conception (the job of paleoanthropologists) It asks the question: “Can what we learn from other cultures or related species be used to understand our own?”

It involves comparison:

between today’s cultures in the “ethnographic present,” whereby cultures are described as if they still existed—like these !Kung Bushmen in the 1950s (the job of ethnographers or cultural anthropologists)

Between cultures that existed through time unrecorded by history—the job of archaeologists

Between related species of the hominid family and hominin subfamily—Like “Lucy” according to this artist’s conception (the job of paleoanthropologists)

It asks the question: “Can what we learn from other cultures or related species be used to understand our own?”

Anthropology is Holistic It involves “The Big Picture” It integrates all aspects of a culture How do hunting, social organization, art, and religion all fit together? It also involves subfields of anthropology How does human biology relate to culture? Can we understand ourselves from behavior of other primates? What can we learn from fossil humans? Or fossil relatives of humans? That involves quite a lot of juggling between subfields and specialized disciplines.

It involves “The Big Picture”

It integrates all aspects of a culture

How do hunting, social organization, art, and religion all fit together?

It also involves subfields of anthropology

How does human biology relate to culture?

Can we understand ourselves from behavior of other primates?

What can we learn from fossil humans? Or fossil relatives of humans?

That involves quite a lot of juggling between subfields and specialized disciplines.

Fields of Anthropology Cultural Anthropology , comprising: Linguistics, the study of spoken language Sociocultural Anthropology , the study of cultures and their social organization Archaeology , the study of past cultures by excavating and analyzing their remains Physical Anthropology, which comprises Paleoanthropology , the study of past human lifeforms Primatology , the comparative study of nonhuman primate anatomy and behavior Population Analysis , the study of human variation (“races”) Forensics, the analysis of evidence related to criminal activity.

Cultural Anthropology , comprising:

Linguistics, the study of spoken language

Sociocultural Anthropology , the study of cultures and their social organization

Archaeology , the study of past cultures by excavating and analyzing their remains

Physical Anthropology, which comprises

Paleoanthropology , the study of past human lifeforms

Primatology , the comparative study of nonhuman primate anatomy and behavior

Population Analysis , the study of human variation (“races”)

Forensics, the analysis of evidence related to criminal activity.

Linguistics Comparative study of spoken language Foundation of all culture Reason: We learn all things by language Language is based on symbols Symbols: Use of one thing or event To understand another thing and event That are intrinsically unrelated Meaning is conveyed by symbols in language

Comparative study of spoken language

Foundation of all culture

Reason: We learn all things by language

Language is based on symbols

Symbols: Use of one thing or event

To understand another thing and event

That are intrinsically unrelated

Meaning is conveyed by symbols in language

Sociocultural Anthropology Comparative study of contemporary cultures Comparison involves human individual and group behavior Societies that govern human relations in an village (above) or other geographical space Products of human behavior: tools, artifacts, housing Several subfields: kinship and family, subsistence, economic, political et al; this group is an extended family.

Comparative study of contemporary cultures

Comparison involves human individual and group behavior

Societies that govern human relations in an village (above) or other geographical space

Products of human behavior: tools, artifacts, housing

Several subfields: kinship and family, subsistence, economic, political et al; this group is an extended family.

Archaeology Comparative study of cultural remains of human societies as excavated (left) and analyzed Also involves human and prehuman physical remains where they are related to the artifacts and structures they left behind. Comparison involves past cultures similar to each other It also involves comparisons of past cultures that are similar to present ones

Comparative study of cultural remains of human societies as excavated (left) and analyzed

Also involves human and prehuman physical remains where they are related to the artifacts and structures they left behind.

Comparison involves past cultures similar to each other

It also involves comparisons of past cultures that are similar to present ones

Physical Anthropology Comparative study of humankind’s physical attributes Comparison of Homo (sapiens) sapiens Among today’s breeding populations (“races”) With apes and monkeys (primatology) With fossil hominids (paleoanthropology)

Comparative study of humankind’s physical attributes

Comparison of Homo (sapiens) sapiens

Among today’s breeding populations (“races”)

With apes and monkeys (primatology)

With fossil hominids (paleoanthropology)

Culture: Focus of All Anthropology What is Culture? Tylor : “that complex whole which includes Knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom And any other capabilities and habits Acquired by man (both genders) As a member of society Generally accepted definition Learned human behavior Shared by a group As members of society

What is Culture?

Tylor : “that complex whole which includes

Knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, law, custom

And any other capabilities and habits

Acquired by man (both genders)

As a member of society

Generally accepted definition

Learned human behavior

Shared by a group

As members of society

Culture is Learned All we do, say, or believe is learned Bee behavior, such as this scout bee using a dance to tell the others where the pollen is located, is genetically transmitted Our behavior is not genetically transmitted Dogs, like this one carrying the remote, learn by conditioning (repeated training with rewards) We learn partly by imitation but mostly through language Enculturation: transmission of culture from generation to generation

All we do, say, or believe is learned

Bee behavior, such as this scout bee using a dance to tell the others where the pollen is located, is genetically transmitted

Our behavior is not genetically transmitted

Dogs, like this one carrying the remote, learn by conditioning (repeated training with rewards)

We learn partly by imitation but mostly through language

Enculturation: transmission of culture from generation to generation

Culture is Based on Symbolism Culture is learned through language Symbols: Use of one thing or event to refer to another thing and event that are intrinsically unrelated Exercise: speech sounds c, a, and t Or in IPA [k], [ æ], and [t] to make [kæt] If we switch them around, we have new meaning: “act” [ækt] or “tack” [tæk] We have an open system of communication

Culture is learned through language

Symbols: Use of one thing or event to refer to another thing and event that are intrinsically unrelated

Exercise: speech sounds c, a, and t

Or in IPA [k], [ æ], and [t] to make [kæt]

If we switch them around, we have new meaning: “act” [ækt] or “tack” [tæk]

We have an open system of communication

Sign or Signal A sign or signal is used To refer to another thing or event That is intrinsically related to the first Example: goose mating call has one sound pattern while a warning call has another The two patterns cannot be combined to produce a third meaning So their communication system is closed

A sign or signal is used

To refer to another thing or event

That is intrinsically related to the first

Example: goose mating call has one sound pattern while a warning call has another

The two patterns cannot be combined to produce a third meaning

So their communication system is closed

Culture is Shared A group with common language and custom shares a culture Groups may be as small as 50 (!Kung band) They may comprise nation of millions (e.g. Japan) There may be subcultures in a culture (e.g. Hutterites in Saskatchewan) who use technology but retain traditional clothing and religious beliefs Culture versus subculture is ambiguous

A group with common language and custom shares a culture

Groups may be as small as 50 (!Kung band)

They may comprise nation of millions (e.g. Japan)

There may be subcultures in a culture (e.g. Hutterites in Saskatchewan) who use technology but retain traditional clothing and religious beliefs

Culture versus subculture is ambiguous

Culture is Patterned/Integrated One aspect of culture reflects other aspects They all fit into a pattern as a whole Examples of integration: Extreme example: Teotihuacan’s Pyramid of the Sun probably wasn’t built by this !Kung band—construction required the coordinated efforts of hundreds But the !Kung have their own pattern: meat sharing elicited by arduous hunts, crude hunting gear, and game scarcity

One aspect of culture reflects other aspects

They all fit into a pattern as a whole

Examples of integration:

Extreme example: Teotihuacan’s Pyramid of the Sun probably wasn’t built by this !Kung band—construction required the coordinated efforts of hundreds

But the !Kung have their own pattern: meat sharing elicited by arduous hunts, crude hunting gear, and game scarcity

Conclusion: All Four Fields are Linked by the Culture Concept Sociocultural Anthropology : All aspects of human are learned, symbolic, shared, and integrated from language to technology to kinship (in most societies) Linguistics involves the study of language, the medium of culture Archaeology constructs the cultures of the past Biological/Physical Anthropology asks how we humans have the capacity for culture in the first place.

Sociocultural Anthropology : All aspects of human are learned, symbolic, shared, and integrated from language to technology to kinship (in most societies)

Linguistics involves the study of language, the medium of culture

Archaeology constructs the cultures of the past

Biological/Physical Anthropology asks how we humans have the capacity for culture in the first place.

The Science of Culture: The Role of Physical Anthropology’ The most basic science in anthropology rests in physical anthropology We first look at what determines the biological capacity for culture Then we examine the basics of scientific method.

The most basic science in anthropology rests in physical anthropology

We first look at what determines the biological capacity for culture

Then we examine the basics of scientific method.

What Does Physical Anthropology Have to Do With Culture? Biologically, we have a capacity for culture through language, tool making and use, and bipedalism We acquired those abilities over millions of year—therefore fossil hominins may give us a clue as to how and when. There is no indication that any one “race” has a greater capacity for culture than any other “race.”

Biologically, we have a capacity for culture through language, tool making and use, and bipedalism

We acquired those abilities over millions of year—therefore fossil hominins may give us a clue as to how and when.

There is no indication that any one “race” has a greater capacity for culture than any other “race.”

Physical Anthropology: Biological Capacity for Culture How can we speak a language? We have a brain structure for speech production and reception (both pictures) Certain parts of the brain control our oral tract: tongue, vocal cords, lungs. How about our tool making and use? Upper part of the motor cortex in brain (lower left) controls our ability to make and use tools Prehensile fingers, hands, and arms also enable tool making and use Even ability to stand on our two feet and walk frees our hands for such purposes

How can we speak a language?

We have a brain structure for speech production and reception (both pictures)

Certain parts of the brain control our oral tract: tongue, vocal cords, lungs.

How about our tool making and use?

Upper part of the motor cortex in brain (lower left) controls our ability to make and use tools

Prehensile fingers, hands, and arms also enable tool making and use

Even ability to stand on our two feet and walk frees our hands for such purposes

Humankind: Present and Past Today , Homo sapiens only occupies the planet Millennia ago, there were many species: Homo neanderthalensis, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo erectus, and Homo habilis Millions of years ago, there was Australopithecus with several species Other hominoids evolved with us: Great apes of today (e.g. chimps, gorillas) arose from such fossil apes as Dryopithecus )

Today , Homo sapiens only occupies the planet

Millennia ago, there were many species:

Homo neanderthalensis, Homo heidelbergensis, Homo erectus, and Homo habilis

Millions of years ago, there was Australopithecus with several species

Other hominoids evolved with us:

Great apes of today (e.g. chimps, gorillas) arose from such fossil apes as Dryopithecus )

Contemporary Human Populations Breeding populations or “ Races” or polytypic groups with regional distinctions capable of interbreeding Serology : Blood Types & Their Distribution Genetic-Linked Diseases : (Tay-Sachs, Sickle-Cell Anemia) Epidemiology: AIDS (acquired from chimps’ SIV) Forensics: Crime scene reconstruction

Breeding populations or

“ Races” or polytypic groups with regional distinctions capable of interbreeding

Serology : Blood Types & Their Distribution

Genetic-Linked Diseases : (Tay-Sachs, Sickle-Cell Anemia)

Epidemiology: AIDS (acquired from chimps’ SIV)

Forensics: Crime scene reconstruction

Past Human/Fossil Hominid Populations Genetics and Natural Selection: studies in biological human evolution Paleoanthropology: comparative study of fossil primates, including hominids Primatology: comparative study of monkeys and apes, their morphology and their behavior Biodiversity: how polytypic populations came to be Human ecology: interaction between human/prehuman populations and their environments

Genetics and Natural Selection: studies in biological human evolution

Paleoanthropology: comparative study of fossil primates, including hominids

Primatology: comparative study of monkeys and apes, their morphology and their behavior

Biodiversity: how polytypic populations came to be

Human ecology: interaction between human/prehuman populations and their environments

Physical Anthropology as Science Science is a body of knowledge gained through observation and experimentation Latin Derivation: Scientia or knowledge Scientific Method is a mode of inquiry that requires the (a) generation, (b) testing, and (c) acceptance or rejection of hypotheses or explanations of a phenomenon.

Science is a body of knowledge gained through

observation and experimentation

Latin Derivation: Scientia or knowledge

Scientific Method is a mode of inquiry that requires the (a) generation, (b) testing, and (c) acceptance or rejection of hypotheses or explanations of a phenomenon.

Fundamentals of Scientific Inquiry Hypothesis: An educated guess to explain the existence of a thing, lifeform, or event. Theory: A hypothesis confirmed by repeated observation of a thing, lifeform, or event Theories are always probabilistic A new theory that better explains facts can replace an existing theory. Theories are never “proven” once and for all Generating and testing hypotheses involve Induction and Deduction Use the following diagram and explanations to understand how the process works

Hypothesis: An educated guess to explain the existence of a thing, lifeform, or event.

Theory: A hypothesis confirmed by repeated observation of a thing, lifeform, or event

Theories are always probabilistic

A new theory that better explains facts can replace an existing theory.

Theories are never “proven” once and for all

Generating and testing hypotheses involve Induction and Deduction

Use the following diagram and explanations to understand how the process works

A Diagram of Scientific Method

Induction Induction involves making observation of things and events in the field. One then searches for certain attributes of things and events observed to find Patterns: Do things or events fit together in some way Is there a connection between one thing or event and another Associations: do thing and events appear together under some condition. If we find these attributes, we arrive at a hypothesis, which entails an explanation of the pattern, connection, or association

Induction involves making observation of things and events in the field.

One then searches for certain attributes of things and events observed to find

Patterns: Do things or events fit together in some way

Is there a connection between one thing or event and another

Associations: do thing and events appear together under some condition.

If we find these attributes, we arrive at a hypothesis, which entails an explanation of the pattern, connection, or association

Deduction Deduction works the other way We assume or have found a pattern, connection, or association between things and/or events. Now, how well does the general explanation predict the specific thing or event in a new situation or area of inquiry. Repetition: Does the phenomenon occur again and again? Universality: Is the phenomenon found everywhere, under all circumstances? Can exceptions be explained? Does new information confirm or contradict the hypothesis generated by the theory?

Deduction works the other way

We assume or have found a pattern, connection, or association between things and/or events.

Now, how well does the general explanation predict the specific thing or event in a new situation or area of inquiry.

Repetition: Does the phenomenon occur again and again?

Universality: Is the phenomenon found everywhere, under all circumstances?

Can exceptions be explained?

Does new information confirm or contradict the hypothesis generated by the theory?

Belief Systems Some matters are outside the scope of science Meaning of life is a philosophical or theological question Behavioral norms in society often defy scientific questions. What are we here for? Science can’t help us here. Belief Systems: Ideas that are taken on faith cannot be scientifically tested

Some matters are outside the scope of science

Meaning of life is a philosophical or theological question

Behavioral norms in society often defy scientific questions.

What are we here for? Science can’t help us here.

Belief Systems: Ideas that are taken on faith cannot be scientifically tested

Scientific Method: Sometimes Research Involves Political Fudging

Conclusion I Anthropology emphasizes Holism: How does everything fit into a pattern? Comparison: In what way are biological organism the same? How are they different? The same can be said about groups, whether human or nonhuman (baboons, chimps, many others)

Anthropology emphasizes

Holism: How does everything fit into a pattern?

Comparison: In what way are biological organism the same? How are they different?

The same can be said about groups, whether human or nonhuman (baboons, chimps, many others)

Conclusion II Biological/Physical Anthropology is Based on scientific inquiry: controlled tests and observations Relies on established scientific theory, of which evolutionary models are one. Involves study of contemporary populations: varieties of human groups and their characteristics Are applied to practical uses (medicine, genetic disorders, forensics)

Biological/Physical Anthropology is

Based on scientific inquiry: controlled tests and observations

Relies on established scientific theory, of which evolutionary models are one.

Involves study of contemporary populations: varieties of human groups and their characteristics

Are applied to practical uses (medicine, genetic disorders, forensics)