Classical Rome: Rise, Fluorescence, and Fall

Rome: Republic and Empire Rise, Fluorescence, and Fall

Introduction

A classic civilization in its own right, but in different ways.

A model of government of law, of military strategy—and the roads

The gods were inherited from the Greeks

Art: Realism

Architecture: The arch, the vault, and the dome

Provided the organizational framework of the church that bore its name: the Roman Catholic Church

Overview of Rome

Its rise

Its Republican phase

The Imperial phase

Demise and Transformation

Rome: Its Location

Rome: Republican Phase: 750-500 BC

Rome: Maximum Extent of Empire, AD 63

Rise of Rome

Latins invaded the peninsula in 1000 BCE

By 800 BCE, founded Rome at the lower valley of the Tiber River, central locus for control of the rest of Italy

Other ethnicities migrated to the region: Etruscans, Phoenicians, Greeks

Unlike the other villages, Rome encouraged other ethnic groups to migrate there

Multiethnic Contributions to Rome

Phoenicians contributed maritime and commercial skills and phonetic alphabet

Etruscans brought urban planning, chariot racing, the toga, bronze and gold crafting—and the arch

Greeks: the pantheon of gods and goddesses, linguistic and literary principles, and aesthetic

Roman Republic: Roots

Etruscans ruled the Latins but were overthrown in 509 BC

Gradually, monarchy gave way to government by the people ( res publica )

Predominately comprised the patricians (aristocrats) and the plebians (farmers, artisans, and other common folk.

Slaves formed a third category as the empire expanded

The rise of the republic was a slow process

Structure of the Roman Republic

Patricians through the Senate controlled the lawmaking process

However, plebians filled the ranks of the Roman army and exercised veto power over the decisions of the Senate

Eventually, through their leaders, the tribunes, acquired the right to hold executive office and lawmaking power

The Centrality of the Roman State

Expectations of the citizen

Obedience to the state

Service in the military—which could be profitable (left)

The soldier had to finance his own spear, shield, armor and helmet (left)

Both were essential to the rise of the Roman emporium, the empire

From Republic to Empire I

Rome then began to build an empire

Conquest of the known world was the extension of conquest of the Italian peninsula by the Latins

War with the Phoenicians of Carthage (Punic Wars) was the first phase of Roman expansion

Other expeditions led to Roman control of the entire Mediterranean ( Mare Nostrum, “Our Sea”) and much of Europe: Hispania (now Spain), Gallia (France) Britannia (England) and part of Germania (Germany)

From Republic to Empire

Led by military dictators, of which Julius Caesar was the best known

He expanded the empire to include western and central Europe

He directed the construction of a wooden bridge to enable the troop to invade and conquer Germania (central Europe)

Under Caesar Augustus, the empire entered into a pax romana (peace under Rome)

This, which brought in a long era of high culture and stability

Military Organization

The army was the tool of imperial expansion

The Roman army was a highly disciplined force and the backbone of Rome

Initially, all free men served two-years

Later, professional soldiers filled the ranks

As the empire expanded, non-Romans joined to gain Roman citizenship

The phalanx was the basic unit (left)

Later it would be divided into smaller units

These units could combine to form a legion if necessary.

See pp. 133-134, Fiero, for the Jewish scholar Josephus’s description of an army regiment

Roman Law

Formed the model of legal systems throughout European countries except England, which relied on common law

The term jus meant both the law and justice

The system of customary law ( ius ) was written down as codes ( lex )

These were displayed as the Twelve Tables of Law at the Forum.

Twelve Tables of Roman Law

The Twelve Tables of Law formed the basis of all Roman law

These tenets were engraved in stone and mounted at the speakers’ forum near the Temple of Saturn (left)

The Tables were destroyed by the Celts in AD 700

The Tables summarized such tenets as civil procedure, parents and children, debts, constitutional law, and crime

Other Concepts of Roman Law

The Romans also:

Invented and evolved case law, focusing on bringing commonsense solutions to private disputes

Invented the concept of equity , putting the spirit of the law above the letter of the law

After the fall of Rome and the rise of Christianity, Justinian codified the law into jus juris civilis

Roman Philosophy

Much of philosophy was derived from the Stoics of the Hellenistic empire, who saw life as adversity to be endured

Happiness lies in acceptance of things as they are

Seneca (left) was a proponent of Stoicism

Lucretius in The Nature of Things saw the world in a purely materialistic light and denied the existence of gods or a spiritual dimension

This belief system encouraged the sense of duty and also the equality of all, which had a humanizing effect on Roman law

This world view anticipated the beliefs of the early Christians, emphasizing personal responsibility and the equality of all

Roman Literature

Best known for prose, writing as a vehicle for providing information

Provided the first geographies and encyclopedias

Other media: instruction manuals, histories, and biographies

Titus Livius (Livy) provided a detailed history of Rome from the 8 th century BCE to his own day (1 st century BCE) (upper left)

Also masters of oratory, exemplified by Tullius Cicero (106-41 BCE); read his “On Duty” on pp. 138-139, Fiero text

Cornelius Tacitus was both historian and orator; see his “On Oratory” on pp. 139-140 (lower left)

Roman Literature: Epic Poetry

Under sponsorship of Octavian, produced a golden age of poetry

Virgil (Publius Vergilius Mato) wrote the epic poem Aeneid , on Aeneas, the mythical Trojan founder of Rome (left)

Virgil accompanies Dante in the Purgatorio and Inferno in the Divine Comedy

Catullus, a Sicilian, wrote lyric poetry, some of it inspired by his adulterous affair with Clodia, wife of a Roman consul, and the collapse of the affair

Publius Ovidus Naso (Ovid) covers the art of seduction, work which earned him exile

Horace was the master of satire that addresses Stoic themes, such as Carpe Diem (Seize the Day)

Roman Drama

Mostly modeled after the comedies of Greece; unlike Greek tragedies, designed purely for entertainment

Romans preferred comedy to tragedy; mostly obscene themes

Stock characters included the good-hearted prostitute, the clever servant, the shrewish wife

Horace (depicted right with Caesar Augustus, left) wrote numerous satirical plays

One story: said to have tried to have sex with a girl who didn’t show up for the date—and woke up next morning with an embarrassing wet dream

He could be the subject of satire himself

Roman Architecture

Noted for the paved roads, still used today

They extended from Tigris and Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean

Tenements (8 or 9 stories) to accommodate thousands of people in Rome were also built

Constructed 18 aqueducts to supply Rome with water

The Arch

Rome built on the arch, contributed by the Etruscans

The principle appears left; weight is evenly distributed from the keystone to the sides

It could provide so much strength that other structures could be built above it

This aqueduct in Nimes, France, is one example (lower left)

Notice that the lower row of arches support the upper row and the canal at the top.

The Vault

They also contributed the vault, a three-dimensional extension of the arch

Notice how a wider surface supports the weight (upper left)

It formed the basic architecture of medieval

This Gothic cathedral in Pamplona, Spain, includes a row of vaults (lower left)

The Dome

The dome was a third form of rooftop architecture in Rome (upper left)

It is created by rotating a round arch through 180 degrees on its axis

They must be buttressed from all sides

The weight must be evenly distributed at all sides

The dome included a circular skylight (interior of dome, lower left)

Domestic Architecture

Entrance to a home was an atrium (left)

This was a large hall entered through a corridor from the street,

An open compluvium (skylight) which let in rainwater and sunlight

Rainwater was collected in a sunken basin in the floor (impluvium) and channeled off into a cistern

Architectural and Engineering Professions

Roman architecture and engineering were considered to be one discipline

The most influential manuals were Vitruvius’s Ten Books on Architecture

Function to the Roman architecture determined design

Classic architecture emphasized size to accommodate 1 million people of Rome: the coliseum, the amphitheaters, all designed for entertainment, whether gladiators, drama, or circuses

Public Architecture: The Forum

A rectangular open space, usually with a temple at one end

Bounded on three sides by colonnades (rows of columns)

Fourth side by a basilica

Best known: Forum Romanum (upper left) and Forum Julium

The plan of Imperial Fora (lower left)

Basilica

A large roofed building, usually at one end of a forum

Divided into three aisles, one large central one and one smaller aisle on either side (upper left)

The nave (raised section of center aisle) allowed construction of a second story

The apse was a recessed part at one end

Trajan’s marketplace was one example

Roman Roads

“ All roads lead to Rome” is an apt description of Roman roads

The network on this map show how the Roman army could go anywhere (upper left)

Later, it also indirectly contributed to the spread of Christianity throughout the empire

The paving was basic to the rapids transport of troops (lower left)

Aqueducts

Romans left their marks in the form of Aqueducts built in Rome and through Europe

They were built so that water could flow hundreds on miles using gravity

Notice how arches were so strong that several could be built atop one another (left)

They were used long after the Fall of Rome

Roman Sculpture

Emphasized Roman victories: triumphal arches and victory columns (obelisks redesigned in Roman style)

Sculptures of Roman emperors, in realistically detailed Roman breastplate and idealized faces and proportions (Caesar Augustus, upper left

Equestrian statues were added in the 2 nd Century BCE

Emphasis on realism was evident in balding senators and matronly women

Fig leafs in nude male statues such as Mercury (left) were a Roman invention after conversion to Christianity;

Greek statues had shown male organs in detail

Equestrian Statues

Equestrian statues were a Roman invention reproduced throughout history

This statue of Marcus Aurelius is typical

It depicts both horse and rider in Grecian naturalistic design

The veins and muscles of the horse are visible as it raises its foreleg, a triumphal pose

Roman Painting

Paintings depicted realistic representations of mythical themes, historical events, and landscapes

Murals in atria (sing. Atrium), large airy rooms, were commonplace

Mosaics were commonly used

Frescos gave the impression that viewers were looking out into actual gardens ( trompe l’oeil , or “fool the eye”)

Still life styles were also common

Murals

Scene from the Villa of the Mysteries (upper left)

An initiate is flagellated (by a winged woman out of view)

Another women plays cymbals while in a frenzied dance

The technique give a three-dimensional image on a two dimensional surface

Portraits were common, as seen in Young Woman With a Stylus (lower left)

This was probably the Lesbian poet Sappho—from the Isle of Lesbos, but not necessarily homosexual

Rome: Decline and Fall

This is a complex issue

The Edict of Milan of 313 CE allowed Christians freedom of worship and toleration became official policy

The state religion of the empire itself was Christianity by the end of the fourth century

When the fall finally came, Christianity was established in Rome

Rome was divided into the West and the East in 286 as an administrative convenience, but set the stage for the Eastern and Western churches.

Rome: Date of Its Decline and Fall

Edward Gibbon fixes the date of the fall in 476 CE, when Odoacer, a Germanic officer in the Roman army overthrew the last emperor Romulus Augustulus

Odoacer leads the “Barbarians at the Gates” (Upper left)

Others fix the date at 410 CE with the First Sack of Rome, a siege led by another Germanic officer Alaric; lack of food induced Alaric’s army induced it to leave

Alaric (lower left) died in 411, after his forces left

Dates vary from 410 CE to as recent as 1453, when Constantinople fell to the Turks; clearly this is a matter of definition

Factors Involved in the Fall of Rome

Christianity: Rome proved unable to resist the spread of Christianity despite persecution, partly because of its widespread appeal (details in the next presentation on roots of Christianity)