Rome: Republic and Empire A Precursor to the Medieval Era

Introduction A classic civilization in its own right, but in different ways. A model of government of law, of military strategy—and the roads The gods were inherited from the Greeks Art: Realism Architecture: The arch, the vault, and the dome Provided the organizational framework of the church that bore its name: the Roman Catholic Church

A classic civilization in its own right, but in different ways.

A model of government of law, of military strategy—and the roads

The gods were inherited from the Greeks

Art: Realism

Architecture: The arch, the vault, and the dome

Provided the organizational framework of the church that bore its name: the Roman Catholic Church

Overview of Rome Its rise Its Republican phase The Imperial phase Demise and Transformation

Its rise

Its Republican phase

The Imperial phase

Demise and Transformation

Rome: Its Location Rome: Republican Phase: 750-500 BC Rome: Maximum Extent of Empire, AD 63

Rome: Republican Phase: 750-500 BC

Rome: Maximum Extent of Empire, AD 63

Rise of Rome Latins invaded the peninsula in 1000 BCE By 800 BCE, founded Rome at the lower valley of the Tiber River, central locus for control of the rest of Italy Other ethnicities migrated to the region: Etruscans, Phoenicians, Greeks Unlike the other villages, Rome encouraged other ethnic groups to migrate there

Latins invaded the peninsula in 1000 BCE

By 800 BCE, founded Rome at the lower valley of the Tiber River, central locus for control of the rest of Italy

Other ethnicities migrated to the region: Etruscans, Phoenicians, Greeks

Unlike the other villages, Rome encouraged other ethnic groups to migrate there

Multiethnic Contributions to Rome Phoenicians contributed maritime and commercial skills and phonetic alphabet Etruscans brought urban planning, chariot racing, the toga, bronze and gold crafting—and the arch Greeks: the pantheon of gods and goddesses, linguistic and literary principles, and aesthetic

Phoenicians contributed maritime and commercial skills and phonetic alphabet

Etruscans brought urban planning, chariot racing, the toga, bronze and gold crafting—and the arch

Greeks: the pantheon of gods and goddesses, linguistic and literary principles, and aesthetic

Roman Republic: Roots Etruscans ruled the Latins but were overthrown in 509 BC Gradually, monarchy gave way to government by the people ( res publica ) Predominately comprised the patricians (aristocrats) and the plebians (farmers, artisans, and other common folk. Slaves formed a third category as the empire expanded The rise of the republic was a slow process

Etruscans ruled the Latins but were overthrown in 509 BC

Gradually, monarchy gave way to government by the people ( res publica )

Predominately comprised the patricians (aristocrats) and the plebians (farmers, artisans, and other common folk.

Slaves formed a third category as the empire expanded

The rise of the republic was a slow process

Structure of the Roman Republic Patricians through the Senate controlled the lawmaking process However, plebians filled the ranks of the Roman army and exercised veto power over the decisions of the Senate Eventually, through their leaders, the tribunes, acquired the right to hold executive office and lawmaking power

Patricians through the Senate controlled the lawmaking process

However, plebians filled the ranks of the Roman army and exercised veto power over the decisions of the Senate

Eventually, through their leaders, the tribunes, acquired the right to hold executive office and lawmaking power

The Centrality of the Roman State Expectations of the citizen Obedience to the state Service in the military—which could be profitable (left) The soldier had to finance his own spear, shield, armor and helmet (left) Both were essential to the rise of the Roman emporium, the empire

Expectations of the citizen

Obedience to the state

Service in the military—which could be profitable (left)

The soldier had to finance his own spear, shield, armor and helmet (left)

Both were essential to the rise of the Roman emporium, the empire

From Republic to Empire I Rome then began to build an empire Conquest of the known world was the extension of conquest of the Italian peninsula by the Latins War with the Phoenicians of Carthage (Punic Wars) was the first phase of Roman expansion Other expeditions led to Roman control of the entire Mediterranean ( Mare Nostrum, “Our Sea”) and much of Europe: Hispania (now Spain), Gallia (France) Britannia (England) and part of Germania (Germany)

Rome then began to build an empire

Conquest of the known world was the extension of conquest of the Italian peninsula by the Latins

War with the Phoenicians of Carthage (Punic Wars) was the first phase of Roman expansion

Other expeditions led to Roman control of the entire Mediterranean ( Mare Nostrum, “Our Sea”) and much of Europe: Hispania (now Spain), Gallia (France) Britannia (England) and part of Germania (Germany)

From Republic to Empire Led by military dictators, of which Julius Caesar was the best known He expanded the empire to include western and central Europe He directed the construction of a wooden bridge to enable the troop to invade and conquer Germania (central Europe) Under Caesar Augustus, the empire entered into a pax romana (peace under Rome) This, which brought in a long era of high culture and stability

Led by military dictators, of which Julius Caesar was the best known

He expanded the empire to include western and central Europe

He directed the construction of a wooden bridge to enable the troop to invade and conquer Germania (central Europe)

Under Caesar Augustus, the empire entered into a pax romana (peace under Rome)

This, which brought in a long era of high culture and stability

Military Organization The army was the tool of imperial expansion The Roman army was a highly disciplined force and the backbone of Rome Initially, all free men served two-years Later, professional soldiers filled the ranks As the empire expanded, non-Romans joined to gain Roman citizenship The phalanx was the basic unit (left) Later it would be divided into smaller units These units could combine to form a legion if necessary. See pp. 133-134, Fiero, for the Jewish scholar Josephus’s description of an army regiment

The army was the tool of imperial expansion

The Roman army was a highly disciplined force and the backbone of Rome

Initially, all free men served two-years

Later, professional soldiers filled the ranks

As the empire expanded, non-Romans joined to gain Roman citizenship

The phalanx was the basic unit (left)

Later it would be divided into smaller units

These units could combine to form a legion if necessary.

See pp. 133-134, Fiero, for the Jewish scholar Josephus’s description of an army regiment

Roman Law Formed the model of legal systems throughout European countries except England, which relied on common law The term jus meant both the law and justice The system of customary law ( ius ) was written down as codes ( lex ) These were displayed as the Twelve Tables of Law at the Forum.

Formed the model of legal systems throughout European countries except England, which relied on common law

The term jus meant both the law and justice

The system of customary law ( ius ) was written down as codes ( lex )

These were displayed as the Twelve Tables of Law at the Forum.

Twelve Tables of Roman Law The Twelve Tables of Law formed the basis of all Roman law These tenets were engraved in stone and mounted at the speakers’ forum near the Temple of Saturn (left) The Tables were destroyed by the Celts in AD 700 The Tables summarized such tenets as civil procedure, parents and children, debts, constitutional law, and crime

The Twelve Tables of Law formed the basis of all Roman law

These tenets were engraved in stone and mounted at the speakers’ forum near the Temple of Saturn (left)

The Tables were destroyed by the Celts in AD 700

The Tables summarized such tenets as civil procedure, parents and children, debts, constitutional law, and crime

Other Concepts of Roman Law The Romans also: Invented and evolved case law, focusing on bringing commonsense solutions to private disputes Invented the concept of equity , putting the spirit of the law above the letter of the law After the fall of Rome and the rise of Christianity, Justinian codified the law into jus juris civilis

The Romans also:

Invented and evolved case law, focusing on bringing commonsense solutions to private disputes

Invented the concept of equity , putting the spirit of the law above the letter of the law

After the fall of Rome and the rise of Christianity, Justinian codified the law into jus juris civilis

Roman Philosophy Much of philosophy was derived from the Stoics of the Hellenistic empire, who saw life as adversity to be endured Happiness lies in acceptance of things as they are Seneca (left) was a proponent of Stoicism Lucretius in The Nature of Things saw the world in a purely materialistic light and denied the existence of gods or a spiritual dimension This belief system encouraged the sense of duty and also the equality of all, which had a humanizing effect on Roman law This world view anticipated the beliefs of the early Christians, emphasizing personal responsibility and the equality of all

Much of philosophy was derived from the Stoics of the Hellenistic empire, who saw life as adversity to be endured

Happiness lies in acceptance of things as they are

Seneca (left) was a proponent of Stoicism

Lucretius in The Nature of Things saw the world in a purely materialistic light and denied the existence of gods or a spiritual dimension

This belief system encouraged the sense of duty and also the equality of all, which had a humanizing effect on Roman law

This world view anticipated the beliefs of the early Christians, emphasizing personal responsibility and the equality of all

Roman Literature Best known for prose, writing as a vehicle for providing information Provided the first geographies and encyclopedias Other media: instruction manuals, histories, and biographies Titus Livius (Livy) provided a detailed history of Rome from the 8 th century BCE to his own day (1 st century BCE) (upper left) Also masters of oratory, exemplified by Tullius Cicero (106-41 BCE); read his “On Duty” on pp. 138-139, Fiero text Cornelius Tacitus was both historian and orator; see his “On Oratory” on pp. 139-140 (lower left)

Best known for prose, writing as a vehicle for providing information

Provided the first geographies and encyclopedias

Other media: instruction manuals, histories, and biographies

Titus Livius (Livy) provided a detailed history of Rome from the 8 th century BCE to his own day (1 st century BCE) (upper left)

Also masters of oratory, exemplified by Tullius Cicero (106-41 BCE); read his “On Duty” on pp. 138-139, Fiero text

Cornelius Tacitus was both historian and orator; see his “On Oratory” on pp. 139-140 (lower left)

Roman Literature: Epic Poetry Under sponsorship of Octavian, produced a golden age of poetry Virgil (Publius Vergilius Mato) wrote the epic poem Aeneid , on Aeneas, the mythical Trojan founder of Rome (left) Virgil accompanies Dante in the Purgatorio and Inferno in the Divine Comedy Catullus, a Sicilian, wrote lyric poetry, some of it inspired by his adulterous affair with Clodia, wife of a Roman consul, and the collapse of the affair Publius Ovidus Naso (Ovid) covers the art of seduction, work which earned him exile Horace was the master of satire that addresses Stoic themes, such as Carpe Diem (Seize the Day)

Under sponsorship of Octavian, produced a golden age of poetry

Virgil (Publius Vergilius Mato) wrote the epic poem Aeneid , on Aeneas, the mythical Trojan founder of Rome (left)

Virgil accompanies Dante in the Purgatorio and Inferno in the Divine Comedy

Catullus, a Sicilian, wrote lyric poetry, some of it inspired by his adulterous affair with Clodia, wife of a Roman consul, and the collapse of the affair

Publius Ovidus Naso (Ovid) covers the art of seduction, work which earned him exile

Horace was the master of satire that addresses Stoic themes, such as Carpe Diem (Seize the Day)

Roman Drama Mostly modeled after the comedies of Greece; unlike Greek tragedies, designed purely for entertainment Romans preferred comedy to tragedy; mostly obscene themes Stock characters included the good-hearted prostitute, the clever servant, the shrewish wife Horace (depicted right with Caesar Augustus, left) wrote numerous satirical plays One story: said to have tried to have sex with a girl who didn’t show up for the date—and woke up next morning with an embarrassing wet dream He could be the subject of satire himself

Mostly modeled after the comedies of Greece; unlike Greek tragedies, designed purely for entertainment

Romans preferred comedy to tragedy; mostly obscene themes

Stock characters included the good-hearted prostitute, the clever servant, the shrewish wife

Horace (depicted right with Caesar Augustus, left) wrote numerous satirical plays

One story: said to have tried to have sex with a girl who didn’t show up for the date—and woke up next morning with an embarrassing wet dream

He could be the subject of satire himself

Roman Architecture Noted for the paved roads, still used today They extended from Tigris and Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean Tenements (8 or 9 stories) to accommodate thousands of people in Rome were also built Constructed 18 aqueducts to supply Rome with water

Noted for the paved roads, still used today

They extended from Tigris and Euphrates to the Atlantic Ocean

Tenements (8 or 9 stories) to accommodate thousands of people in Rome were also built

Constructed 18 aqueducts to supply Rome with water

Building Materials Brick used by both Etruscans and Romans Marble was used as a facing over brick Concrete: Mixture of mortar, gravel, rubble, and water made a solid mix of material Travertine: Hard, durable limestone that ages into an attractive shade of yellow.

Brick used by both Etruscans and Romans

Marble was used as a facing over brick

Concrete: Mixture of mortar, gravel, rubble, and water made a solid mix of material

Travertine: Hard, durable limestone that ages into an attractive shade of yellow.

The Arch Rome built on the arch, contributed by the Etruscans The principle appears left; weight is evenly distributed from the keystone to the sides It could provide so much strength that other structures could be built above it This aqueduct in Nimes, France, is one example (lower left) Notice that the lower row of arches support the upper row and the canal at the top. More details: see p. 313

Rome built on the arch, contributed by the Etruscans

The principle appears left; weight is evenly distributed from the keystone to the sides

It could provide so much strength that other structures could be built above it

This aqueduct in Nimes, France, is one example (lower left)

Notice that the lower row of arches support the upper row and the canal at the top.

More details: see p. 313

The Vault They also contributed the vault, a three-dimensional extension of the arch Notice how a wider surface supports the weight (upper left) It formed the basic architecture of medieval This Gothic cathedral in Pamplona, Spain, includes a row of vaults (lower left) Further Details: p. 213, box

They also contributed the vault, a three-dimensional extension of the arch

Notice how a wider surface supports the weight (upper left)

It formed the basic architecture of medieval

This Gothic cathedral in Pamplona, Spain, includes a row of vaults (lower left)

Further Details: p. 213, box

The Dome The dome was a third form of rooftop architecture in Rome (upper left) It is created by rotating a round arch through 180 degrees on its axis They must be buttressed from all sides The weight must be evenly distributed at all sides The dome included a circular skylight (interior of dome, lower left)

The dome was a third form of rooftop architecture in Rome (upper left)

It is created by rotating a round arch through 180 degrees on its axis

They must be buttressed from all sides

The weight must be evenly distributed at all sides

The dome included a circular skylight (interior of dome, lower left)

Domestic Architecture Entrance to a home was an atrium (left) This was a large hall entered through a corridor from the street, An open compluvium (skylight) which let in rainwater and sunlight Rainwater was collected in a sunken basin in the floor (impluvium) and channeled off into a cistern

Entrance to a home was an atrium (left)

This was a large hall entered through a corridor from the street,

An open compluvium (skylight) which let in rainwater and sunlight

Rainwater was collected in a sunken basin in the floor (impluvium) and channeled off into a cistern

Architectural and Engineering Professions Roman architecture and engineering were considered to be one discipline The most influential manuals were Vitruvius’s Ten Books on Architecture Function to the Roman architecture determined design Classic architecture emphasized size to accommodate 1 million people of Rome: Namely, the Coliseum, the amphitheaters, all designed for entertainment, whether gladiators, drama, or circuses

Roman architecture and engineering were considered to be one discipline

The most influential manuals were Vitruvius’s Ten Books on Architecture

Function to the Roman architecture determined design

Classic architecture emphasized size to accommodate 1 million people of Rome:

Namely, the Coliseum, the amphitheaters, all designed for entertainment, whether gladiators, drama, or circuses

Public Architecture: The Forum A rectangular open space, usually with a temple at one end Bounded on three sides by colonnades (rows of columns) Fourth side by a basilica Best known: Forum Romanum (upper left) and Forum Julium The plan of Imperial Fora (lower left)

A rectangular open space, usually with a temple at one end

Bounded on three sides by colonnades (rows of columns)

Fourth side by a basilica

Best known: Forum Romanum (upper left) and Forum Julium

The plan of Imperial Fora (lower left)

Basilica A large roofed building, usually at one end of a forum Divided into three aisles, one large central one and one smaller aisle on either side (upper left) The nave (raised section of center aisle) allowed construction of a second story The apse was a recessed part at one end Trajan’s marketplace was one example

A large roofed building, usually at one end of a forum

Divided into three aisles, one large central one and one smaller aisle on either side (upper left)

The nave (raised section of center aisle) allowed construction of a second story

The apse was a recessed part at one end

Trajan’s marketplace was one example

Roman Roads “ All roads lead to Rome” is an apt description of Roman roads The network on this map show how the Roman army could go anywhere (upper left) Later, it also indirectly contributed to the spread of Christianity throughout the empire The paving was basic to the rapids transport of troops (lower left)

“ All roads lead to Rome” is an apt description of Roman roads

The network on this map show how the Roman army could go anywhere (upper left)

Later, it also indirectly contributed to the spread of Christianity throughout the empire

The paving was basic to the rapids transport of troops (lower left)

Aqueducts Romans left their marks in the form of Aqueducts built in Rome and through Europe They were built so that water could flow hundreds on miles using gravity Notice how arches were so strong that several could be built atop one another (left) They were used long after the Fall of Rome

Romans left their marks in the form of Aqueducts built in Rome and through Europe

They were built so that water could flow hundreds on miles using gravity

Notice how arches were so strong that several could be built atop one another (left)

They were used long after the Fall of Rome

Roman Sculpture Emphasized Roman victories: triumphal arches and victory columns (obelisks redesigned in Roman style) Sculptures of Roman emperors, in realistically detailed Roman breastplate and idealized faces and proportions (Caesar Augustus, upper left Equestrian statues were added in the 2 nd Century BCE Emphasis on realism was evident in balding senators and matronly women Fig leafs in nude male statues such as Mercury (left) were a Roman invention after conversion to Christianity; Greek statues had shown male organs in detail

Emphasized Roman victories: triumphal arches and victory columns (obelisks redesigned in Roman style)

Sculptures of Roman emperors, in realistically detailed Roman breastplate and idealized faces and proportions (Caesar Augustus, upper left

Equestrian statues were added in the 2 nd Century BCE

Emphasis on realism was evident in balding senators and matronly women

Fig leafs in nude male statues such as Mercury (left) were a Roman invention after conversion to Christianity;

Greek statues had shown male organs in detail

Roman Sculpture: Realism Except for selected emperors, the subjects were portrayed with all their flaws Augustus is portrayed here as a idealized figure, though a faithful replication (upper left; detail from the statue, p. 239) The woman’s eyes and wrinkles reveal a realistic style of her aging (lower left)

Except for selected emperors, the subjects were portrayed with all their flaws

Augustus is portrayed here as a idealized figure, though a faithful replication (upper left; detail from the statue, p. 239)

The woman’s eyes and wrinkles reveal a realistic style of her aging (lower left)

Equestrian Statues Equestrian statues were a Roman invention reproduced throughout history This statue of Marcus Aurelius is typical It depicts both horse and rider in Grecian naturalistic design The veins and muscles of the horse are visible as it raises its foreleg, a triumphal pose

Equestrian statues were a Roman invention reproduced throughout history

This statue of Marcus Aurelius is typical

It depicts both horse and rider in Grecian naturalistic design

The veins and muscles of the horse are visible as it raises its foreleg, a triumphal pose

Roman Painting Paintings depicted realistic representations of mythical themes, historical events, and landscapes Murals in atria (sing. Atrium), large airy rooms, were commonplace Mosaics were commonly used Frescos gave the impression that viewers were looking out into actual gardens ( trompe l’oeil , or “fool the eye”) Still life styles were also common

Paintings depicted realistic representations of mythical themes, historical events, and landscapes

Murals in atria (sing. Atrium), large airy rooms, were commonplace

Mosaics were commonly used

Frescos gave the impression that viewers were looking out into actual gardens ( trompe l’oeil , or “fool the eye”)

Still life styles were also common

Murals Scene from the Villa of the Mysteries (upper left) An initiate is flagellated (by a winged woman out of view) Another women plays cymbals while in a frenzied dance The technique give a three-dimensional image on a two dimensional surfact Portraits were common, as seen in Young Woman With a Stylus (lower left)

Scene from the Villa of the Mysteries (upper left)

An initiate is flagellated (by a winged woman out of view)

Another women plays cymbals while in a frenzied dance

The technique give a three-dimensional image on a two dimensional surfact

Portraits were common, as seen in Young Woman With a Stylus (lower left)

Conclusion Romans were imperialists first and republicans second Much of the themes emphasize war and conquest The arts mostly had a practical side There was much art in Rome—sculpture, art, even architecture—that were Greek imitations The gods themselves were renamed imitations of the Greeks: Zeus became Jupiter, for example, and Athena, Minerva They were engineers first and artist second—size mattered in the arts and architecture

Romans were imperialists first and republicans second

Much of the themes emphasize war and conquest

The arts mostly had a practical side

There was much art in Rome—sculpture, art, even architecture—that were Greek imitations

The gods themselves were renamed imitations of the Greeks: Zeus became Jupiter, for example, and Athena, Minerva

They were engineers first and artist second—size mattered in the arts and architecture