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Before History The hominids Australopithecus Homo erectus Homo sapiens Economy and society of hunting and gathering peoples Some permanent Paleolithic settlements The origins of agriculture Neolithic era; new stone age; refined tools and agriculture When was the Neolithic Roles of men and women Early agriculture around 9000 B.C.E. Merchants, migrants, and travelers spread food knowledge Slash-and-burn cultivation Population explosion caused by surplus The origins of urban life Emergence of cities Earliest cities in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, 4000 to 3500 B.C.E

The hominids

Australopithecus

Homo erectus

Homo sapiens

Economy and society of hunting and gathering peoples

Some permanent Paleolithic settlements

The origins of agriculture

Neolithic era; new stone age; refined tools and agriculture

When was the Neolithic

Roles of men and women

Early agriculture around 9000 B.C.E.

Merchants, migrants, and travelers spread food knowledge

Slash-and-burn cultivation

Population explosion caused by surplus

The origins of urban life

Emergence of cities

Earliest cities in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, 4000 to 3500 B.C.E

Mesopotamia Mesopotamia: "the land between the rivers" Little rain, so area needs irrigation Food supplies increase Human population increases Migrants to the area increase--especially Semites Sumer (in south) becomes population center First cities emerge, 4000 B.C.E Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.) Coup against king of Kish Seizes trade routes and natural resources Gradually empire weakens and collapses about 2000 B.C.E. Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.E.) Centralizes the bureaucracy and regulates taxation Capital is Babylon Law Code: law of retribution and importance of social status Hittite assault and empire crumbles in 1595 B.C.E.

Mesopotamia: "the land between the rivers"

Little rain, so area needs irrigation

Food supplies increase

Human population increases

Migrants to the area increase--especially Semites

Sumer (in south) becomes population center

First cities emerge, 4000 B.C.E

Sargon of Akkad (2370-2315 B.C.E.)

Coup against king of Kish

Seizes trade routes and natural resources

Gradually empire weakens and collapses about 2000 B.C.E.

Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.E.)

Centralizes the bureaucracy and regulates taxation

Capital is Babylon

Law Code: law of retribution and importance of social status

Hittite assault and empire crumbles in 1595 B.C.E.

Later Mesopotamia The later Mesopotamian empires Assyrians (northern Mesopotamia), about 1300-612 B.C.E. Cities: Assur and Ninevah Powerful army: professional officers (merit), chariots, archers, iron weapons Unpopular rule leads to rebellions; ends 612 B.C.E. New Babylonian empire, 600-550 B.C.E. Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 B.C.E.) Hanging gardens of palace shows wealth and luxury

The later Mesopotamian empires

Assyrians (northern Mesopotamia), about 1300-612 B.C.E.

Cities: Assur and Ninevah

Powerful army: professional officers (merit), chariots, archers, iron weapons

Unpopular rule leads to rebellions; ends 612 B.C.E.

New Babylonian empire, 600-550 B.C.E.

Nebuchadnezzar (605-562 B.C.E.)

Hanging gardens of palace shows wealth and luxury

The formation of a complex society & cultural traditions Economic specialization and trade Bronze (made from copper and tin); used in weapons and later agricultural tools Iron (about 1000 B.C.E.), cheaper and more widely available; used in weapons and tools Wheel (about 3500 B.C.E.) helps trade; carts can carry more goods further Shipbuilding: maritime trade increases in all directions; network develops The emergence of a stratified patriarchal society Social classes Cities: more opportunities to accumulate wealth Kings (hereditary) and nobles (royal family and supporters) are highest class Priests and priestesses rule temple communities with large incomes and staff Free commoners (peasants), dependent clients (no property); pay taxes and labor on building projects Slaves (POWs, criminals, debt servitude): mostly domestic servants Patriarchy Hammurabi's code: men are head of the household Women get fewer rights after 2000 B.C.E.; by 1500 B.C.E. are wearing veils

Economic specialization and trade

Bronze (made from copper and tin); used in weapons and later agricultural tools

Iron (about 1000 B.C.E.), cheaper and more widely available; used in weapons and tools

Wheel (about 3500 B.C.E.) helps trade; carts can carry more goods further

Shipbuilding: maritime trade increases in all directions; network develops

The emergence of a stratified patriarchal society

Social classes

Cities: more opportunities to accumulate wealth

Kings (hereditary) and nobles (royal family and supporters) are highest class

Priests and priestesses rule temple communities with large incomes and staff

Free commoners (peasants), dependent clients (no property); pay taxes and labor on building projects

Slaves (POWs, criminals, debt servitude): mostly domestic servants

Patriarchy

Hammurabi's code: men are head of the household

Women get fewer rights after 2000 B.C.E.; by 1500 B.C.E. are wearing veils

The formation of a complex society & cultural traditions, pt II The development of written cultural traditions Cuneiform, Mesopotamian writing style, becomes standard Reed stylus (wedge-shaped) pressed in clay then baked Mostly commercial and tax documents Education: vocational to be scribe or government official Literature: astronomy, mathematics, abstract (religious and literary like Gilgamesh)

The development of written cultural traditions

Cuneiform, Mesopotamian writing style, becomes standard

Reed stylus (wedge-shaped) pressed in clay then baked

Mostly commercial and tax documents

Education: vocational to be scribe or government official

Literature: astronomy, mathematics, abstract (religious and literary like Gilgamesh)

The broader influence of Mesopotamian society Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews Early Hebrews are pastoral nomads between Mesopotamia and Egypt (second millennium B.C.E.) Settle in some cities Abraham leads group to Palestine 1850 B.C.E. Descendents borrow law of retribution and flood story from Mesopotamia Some migrate to Egypt in eighteenth century B.C.E. then back to Palestine with Moses Twelve tribes become Israelites Mesopotamian-style monarchs with Jerusalem as capital David (1000-970 B.C.E.) then Solomon (970-930 B.C.E.) Moses and monotheism Ten Commandments: moral and ethical standards for followers Compilation of teachings into Torah (1000-400 B.C.E.) Assyrians conquer Conquer Israel in north and Judah in south and destroy Jerusalem Deportees return to Judea; become known as Jews (586 B.C.E.) Prophets in this period increase devotion of people Build distinct Jewish community in Judea with strong group identity

Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews

Early Hebrews are pastoral nomads between Mesopotamia and Egypt (second millennium B.C.E.)

Settle in some cities

Abraham leads group to Palestine 1850 B.C.E.

Descendents borrow law of retribution and flood story from Mesopotamia

Some migrate to Egypt in eighteenth century B.C.E. then back to Palestine with Moses

Twelve tribes become Israelites

Mesopotamian-style monarchs with Jerusalem as capital

David (1000-970 B.C.E.) then Solomon (970-930 B.C.E.)

Moses and monotheism

Ten Commandments: moral and ethical standards for followers

Compilation of teachings into Torah (1000-400 B.C.E.)

Assyrians conquer

Conquer Israel in north and Judah in south and destroy Jerusalem

Deportees return to Judea; become known as Jews (586 B.C.E.)

Prophets in this period increase devotion of people

Build distinct Jewish community in Judea with strong group identity

The broader influence of Mesopotamian society, pt II The Phoenicians First settlers about 3000 B.C.E.; develop into kingdoms of independent city-states Little agriculture; live on trade and communications networks Overland trade to Mesopotamia; influence on culture Sea trade most important; get raw materials, trade for manufactured goods Have early alphabetical script (1500 B.C.E.)

The Phoenicians

First settlers about 3000 B.C.E.; develop into kingdoms of independent city-states

Little agriculture; live on trade and communications networks

Overland trade to Mesopotamia; influence on culture

Sea trade most important; get raw materials, trade for manufactured goods

Have early alphabetical script (1500 B.C.E.)

Early Africa Egypt and Nubia: "gifts of the Nile" Egypt--lower third of Nile River; Nubia--middle third of Nile After 5000 B.C.E. peoples cultivate gourds and watermelons, domesticate donkeys and cattle (from Sudan), and grow wheat and barley (from Mesopotamia) Agriculture easy in Egypt (due to Nile flooding) but more work in Nubia States begin to emerge by 4000 B.C.E., small kingdoms by 3300 B.C.E. The unification of Egypt Strong Nubian realm, Ta Seti (3400-3200 B.C.E.) Egypt, large and prosperous state by 3100 B.C.E. Menes at Memphis unites Upper and Lower Egypt Pharaoh, absolute ruler and owns all land Archaic Period (3100-2660 B.C.E.) and Old Kingdom (2660-2160 B.C.E.) Great pyramids of Giza built during this period; Khufu the largest Violence between Egypt and Nubia (Egypt dominates from 3000-2400 B.C.E.) Nubia later develops into Kingdom of Kush Interaction through diplomacy, Nubian mercenaries, and intermarriage

Egypt and Nubia: "gifts of the Nile"

Egypt--lower third of Nile River; Nubia--middle third of Nile

After 5000 B.C.E. peoples cultivate gourds and watermelons, domesticate donkeys and cattle (from Sudan), and grow wheat and barley (from Mesopotamia)

Agriculture easy in Egypt (due to Nile flooding) but more work in Nubia

States begin to emerge by 4000 B.C.E., small kingdoms by 3300 B.C.E.

The unification of Egypt

Strong Nubian realm, Ta Seti (3400-3200 B.C.E.)

Egypt, large and prosperous state by 3100 B.C.E.

Menes at Memphis unites Upper and Lower Egypt

Pharaoh, absolute ruler and owns all land

Archaic Period (3100-2660 B.C.E.) and Old Kingdom (2660-2160 B.C.E.)

Great pyramids of Giza built during this period; Khufu the largest

Violence between Egypt and Nubia (Egypt dominates from 3000-2400 B.C.E.)

Nubia later develops into Kingdom of Kush

Interaction through diplomacy, Nubian mercenaries, and intermarriage

Turmoil and empire Period of upheaval after Old Kingdom (2160-2040 B.C.E.) Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 B.C.E.) Nomadic horsemen, Hyksos, invade Egypt Using bronze weapons and chariots (Egypt does not have) Captures Memphis in 1674 B.C.E. Causes revolts in Upper Egypt New Kingdom (1550-1070 B.C.E.) Pharaoh gains power, huge army, large bureaucracy Building projects: temples, palaces, statues Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 B.C.E.) built empire including Palestine, Syrian, Nubia Then Egypt falls into a long period of decline Egyptians driven out of Nubia in 1100 B.C.E. Nubian Kingdom of Kush; capital is Napata King Kashta conquers Thebes (in Egypt) in 760 B.C.E. Assyrians with iron weapons invade from the north After sixth century B.C.E. series of foreign conquests

Period of upheaval after Old Kingdom (2160-2040 B.C.E.)

Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 B.C.E.)

Nomadic horsemen, Hyksos, invade Egypt

Using bronze weapons and chariots (Egypt does not have)

Captures Memphis in 1674 B.C.E.

Causes revolts in Upper Egypt

New Kingdom (1550-1070 B.C.E.)

Pharaoh gains power, huge army, large bureaucracy

Building projects: temples, palaces, statues

Tuthmosis III (1479-1425 B.C.E.) built empire including Palestine, Syrian, Nubia

Then Egypt falls into a long period of decline

Egyptians driven out of Nubia in 1100 B.C.E.

Nubian Kingdom of Kush; capital is Napata

King Kashta conquers Thebes (in Egypt) in 760 B.C.E.

Assyrians with iron weapons invade from the north

After sixth century B.C.E. series of foreign conquests

The formation of complex societies & cultural traditions The emergence of cities and stratified societies Cities are not as prominent in Egypt as in Mesopotamia (agricultural villages) Memphis, head of the delta Thebes, administrative center of Upper Egypt Heliopolis, center of sun god cult Tanis, important sea port on Mediterannean Nubian cities Kerma, dominates trade routes Napata, most prosperous city after Nubian conquest of Egypt Meroë, most influential city after Assyrian invasion because it is farther south Social classes Egypt: peasants and slaves (agriculture), pharaoh, professional military and administrators Nubia: complex and hierarchical society (can tell from tombs) Patriarchy in both but women have more influence than in Mesopotamia Women act as regents, like female pharaoh Hatshepsut Nubia: women serve as queens, priestesses, and scribes

The emergence of cities and stratified societies

Cities are not as prominent in Egypt as in Mesopotamia (agricultural villages)

Memphis, head of the delta

Thebes, administrative center of Upper Egypt

Heliopolis, center of sun god cult

Tanis, important sea port on Mediterannean

Nubian cities

Kerma, dominates trade routes

Napata, most prosperous city after Nubian conquest of Egypt

Meroë, most influential city after Assyrian invasion because it is farther south

Social classes

Egypt: peasants and slaves (agriculture), pharaoh, professional military and administrators

Nubia: complex and hierarchical society (can tell from tombs)

Patriarchy in both but women have more influence than in Mesopotamia

Women act as regents, like female pharaoh Hatshepsut

Nubia: women serve as queens, priestesses, and scribes

Economic specialization and trade Bronze important but copper and tin rare and expensive Iron metallurgy develops independently in Sudan Transportation: sailboats, carts, and donkey caravans Trade networks Egypt and Nubia: exotic goods from Nubia (ebony, gold, gems, slaves) and pottery, wine, linen, decorative items from Egypt Egypt and the north: especially wood, like cedar from Lebanon Egypt with Africa: Punt (east Africa)

Bronze important but copper and tin rare and expensive

Iron metallurgy develops independently in Sudan

Transportation: sailboats, carts, and donkey caravans

Trade networks

Egypt and Nubia: exotic goods from Nubia (ebony, gold, gems, slaves) and pottery, wine, linen, decorative items from Egypt

Egypt and the north: especially wood, like cedar from Lebanon

Egypt with Africa: Punt (east Africa)

Early writing in the Nile valley Hieroglyphics found on monuments and papyrus by 3200 B.C.E. Hieratic script, everyday writing 2600-600 B.C.E. Demotic and Coptic scripts adapt Greek writing Scribes live very privileged lives Nubia adapts Egyptian writing until Meroitic in fifth century B.C.E. (untranslated)

Hieroglyphics found on monuments and papyrus by 3200 B.C.E.

Hieratic script, everyday writing 2600-600 B.C.E.

Demotic and Coptic scripts adapt Greek writing

Scribes live very privileged lives

Nubia adapts Egyptian writing until Meroitic in fifth century B.C.E. (untranslated)

The development of organized religious traditions Principal gods: sun gods Amon and Re Brief period of monotheism: Aten Pharaoh Akhenaten's idea of a new capital at Akhetaten Orders all other gods' names chiseled out; their names die with him Mummification At first only pharaohs are mummified (Old Kingdom) Later ruling classes and wealthy can afford it Eventually commoners have it too (Middle and New Kingdom) Cult of Osiris Brother Seth murders Osiris and scatters his body Wife Isis gathers him up and gods restore him to life in underworld Becomes associated with Nile, crops, life/death, immortality Osiris judges the heart of the dead against the feather of truth Nubians combine Egyptian religions with their own

Principal gods: sun gods Amon and Re

Brief period of monotheism: Aten

Pharaoh Akhenaten's idea of a new capital at Akhetaten

Orders all other gods' names chiseled out; their names die with him

Mummification

At first only pharaohs are mummified (Old Kingdom)

Later ruling classes and wealthy can afford it

Eventually commoners have it too (Middle and New Kingdom)

Cult of Osiris

Brother Seth murders Osiris and scatters his body

Wife Isis gathers him up and gods restore him to life in underworld

Becomes associated with Nile, crops, life/death, immortality

Osiris judges the heart of the dead against the feather of truth

Nubians combine Egyptian religions with their own

Early India Background Neolithic villages in Indus River valley by 3000 B.C.E. Earliest remains inaccessible because of silt deposits and rising water table Also little known because writing not yet translated Foundations of Harappan society The Indus River Runs through north India, with sources at Hindu Kush and the Himalayas Rich deposits but less predictable than the Nile Wheat and barley were cultivated in Indus valley Cultivated cotton before 5000 B.C.E. Complex society of Dravidians, 3000 B.C.E. No evidence about political system Harappa and Mohenjo-daro: two main cities Each city had a fortified citadel and a large granary Broad streets, marketplaces, temples, public buildings Standardized weights, measures, architectural styles, and brick sizes Harappan society and culture Social distinctions, as seen from living styles Religious beliefs strongly emphasized fertility Harappan society declined from 1900 B.C.E. onward Ecological degradation led to a subsistence crisis Another possibility: natural catastrophes such as floods or earthquakes Population began to abandon their cities by about 1700 B.C.E. Almost entirely collapsed by about 1500 B.C.E. Some Harappan cultural traditions maintained

Background

Neolithic villages in Indus River valley by 3000 B.C.E.

Earliest remains inaccessible because of silt deposits and rising water table

Also little known because writing not yet translated

Foundations of Harappan society

The Indus River

Runs through north India, with sources at Hindu Kush and the Himalayas

Rich deposits but less predictable than the Nile

Wheat and barley were cultivated in Indus valley

Cultivated cotton before 5000 B.C.E.

Complex society of Dravidians, 3000 B.C.E.

No evidence about political system

Harappa and Mohenjo-daro: two main cities

Each city had a fortified citadel and a large granary

Broad streets, marketplaces, temples, public buildings

Standardized weights, measures, architectural styles, and brick sizes

Harappan society and culture

Social distinctions, as seen from living styles

Religious beliefs strongly emphasized fertility

Harappan society declined from 1900 B.C.E. onward

Ecological degradation led to a subsistence crisis

Another possibility: natural catastrophes such as floods or earthquakes

Population began to abandon their cities by about 1700 B.C.E.

Almost entirely collapsed by about 1500 B.C.E.

Some Harappan cultural traditions maintained

The Indo-European migrations and early Aryan India The Aryans and India The early Aryans Depended heavily on a pastoral economy No writing system, but had orally transmitted works called the Vedas Sacred language (Sanskrit) and daily-use language (Prakit) The Vedic Age: 1500-500 B.C.E. A boisterous period; conflicts with indigenous peoples Called indigenous people dasas --"enemies" or "subject people" Indra, the Aryans' war god and military hero Aryan chiefdoms fought ferociously among themselves Most chiefdoms had leader raja, king Aryan migrations in India: first Punjab and by 500 B.C.E. in northern Deccan Used iron tools and developed agriculture Lost tribal organizations but established regional kingdoms

The Aryans and India

The early Aryans

Depended heavily on a pastoral economy

No writing system, but had orally transmitted works called the Vedas

Sacred language (Sanskrit) and daily-use language (Prakit)

The Vedic Age: 1500-500 B.C.E.

A boisterous period; conflicts with indigenous peoples

Called indigenous people dasas --"enemies" or "subject people"

Indra, the Aryans' war god and military hero

Aryan chiefdoms fought ferociously among themselves

Most chiefdoms had leader raja, king

Aryan migrations in India: first Punjab and by 500 B.C.E. in northern Deccan

Used iron tools and developed agriculture

Lost tribal organizations but established regional kingdoms

Origins of the caste system Caste and varna The meaning of caste : hereditary, unchangeable social classes The Sanskrit word varna, "color," refers to social classes Social distinctions in the late Vedic Age Four main varnas, recognized after 1000 B.C.E.: brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants), shudras (landless peasants and serfs) Later the category of the untouchables was added Subcaste, or jati Represented more elaborate scheme of social classification; developed after the sixth century B.C.E. Jati , or subcastes, were determined by occupations Elaborate rules of jati life: eating, communication, behavior In caste system, social mobility difficult but still possible Usually a result of group, not individual, effort Foreign peoples could find a place in society of the castes

Caste and varna

The meaning of caste : hereditary, unchangeable social classes

The Sanskrit word varna, "color," refers to social classes

Social distinctions in the late Vedic Age

Four main varnas, recognized after 1000 B.C.E.: brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and aristocrats), vaishyas (cultivators, artisans, and merchants), shudras (landless peasants and serfs)

Later the category of the untouchables was added

Subcaste, or jati

Represented more elaborate scheme of social classification; developed after the sixth century B.C.E.

Jati , or subcastes, were determined by occupations

Elaborate rules of jati life: eating, communication, behavior

In caste system, social mobility difficult but still possible

Usually a result of group, not individual, effort

Foreign peoples could find a place in society of the castes

Development of patriarchal society Patriarchal and patrilineal society The Lawbook of Manu Prepared by an anonymous sage, first century B.C.E. Dealt with moral behavior and social relationships Advised men to treat women with honor and respect Subjected women to the control and guidance of men Women's duties: to bear children and maintain the household Sati, social custom in which widow throws self on funeral pyre

Patriarchal and patrilineal society

The Lawbook of Manu

Prepared by an anonymous sage, first century B.C.E.

Dealt with moral behavior and social relationships

Advised men to treat women with honor and respect

Subjected women to the control and guidance of men

Women's duties: to bear children and maintain the household

Sati, social custom in which widow throws self on funeral pyre

Religion in the Vedic Age Aryan religion Aryan gods War god, Indra Gods of the sun, the sky, the moon, fire, health, disease God Varuna: ethical concern, cosmic order Ritual sacrifices were more important than ethics Priests were specialists of the ritual sacrifices Ritual sacrifices for rewards from the divine power Sacrifices, chants, soma Spirituality underwent a shift after about 800 B.C.E. Thoughtful individuals retreated to forests as hermits Dravidian notions of transmigration and reincarnation were adapted

Aryan religion

Aryan gods

War god, Indra

Gods of the sun, the sky, the moon, fire, health, disease

God Varuna: ethical concern, cosmic order

Ritual sacrifices were more important than ethics

Priests were specialists of the ritual sacrifices

Ritual sacrifices for rewards from the divine power

Sacrifices, chants, soma

Spirituality underwent a shift after about 800 B.C.E.

Thoughtful individuals retreated to forests as hermits

Dravidian notions of transmigration and reincarnation were adapted

The blending of Aryan and Dravidian values The Upanishads, works of religious teachings (800-400 B.C.E.) The religious forums: dialogues between disciples and sages Brahman: the universal soul Highest goal: to escape reincarnation and join with Brahman Samsara: an individual soul was born many times Karma: specific incarnations that a soul experienced Moksha : permanent liberation from physical incarnation Religion and Vedic society Samsara and karma reinforced caste and social hierarchy Upanishads were also spiritual and intellectual contemplations Taught to observe high ethical standards: discourage greed, envy, vice Respect for all living things, a vegetarian diet

The Upanishads, works of religious teachings (800-400 B.C.E.)

The religious forums: dialogues between disciples and sages

Brahman: the universal soul

Highest goal: to escape reincarnation and join with Brahman

Samsara: an individual soul was born many times

Karma: specific incarnations that a soul experienced

Moksha : permanent liberation from physical incarnation

Religion and Vedic society

Samsara and karma reinforced caste and social hierarchy

Upanishads were also spiritual and intellectual contemplations

Taught to observe high ethical standards: discourage greed, envy, vice

Respect for all living things, a vegetarian diet

Early China Early agricultural society and the Xia dynasty The Yellow River Water source at high plateau of Tibet Loess soil carried by the river's water, hence "yellow" "China's Sorrow"--extensive flooding Loess provided rich soil, soft and easy to work Neolithic societies after 5000 B.C.E. Yangshao society, 5000-3000 B.C.E. Excavations at Banpo village: fine pottery, bone tools The Xia dynasty Archeological discovery of the Xia is still in its early stages Established about 2200 B.C.E. Legendary King Yu, the dynasty founder, a hero of flood control Erlitou: possibly the capital city of the Xia

Early agricultural society and the Xia dynasty

The Yellow River

Water source at high plateau of Tibet

Loess soil carried by the river's water, hence "yellow"

"China's Sorrow"--extensive flooding

Loess provided rich soil, soft and easy to work

Neolithic societies after 5000 B.C.E.

Yangshao society, 5000-3000 B.C.E.

Excavations at Banpo village: fine pottery, bone tools

The Xia dynasty

Archeological discovery of the Xia is still in its early stages

Established about 2200 B.C.E.

Legendary King Yu, the dynasty founder, a hero of flood control

Erlitou: possibly the capital city of the Xia

The Shang and Zhou Dynasties The Shang dynasty: 1766-1122 B.C.E. Arose in the southern and eastern areas of the Xia realm Many written records and material remains discovered Bronze metallurgy, monopolized by ruling elite Horses and chariots traveled with Indo-European migrants to China Agricultural surpluses supported large troops A vast network of walled towns The Shang capital moved six times Lavish tombs of Shang kings with thousands of objects Other states besides Shang, for example, Sanxingdui The Zhou dynasty: 1122-256 B.C.E. Zhou gradually eclipsed Shang Mandate of heaven, the right to rule The Zhou needed to justify the overthrow Ruler as "the son of heaven" Mandate of heaven only given to virtuous rulers Political organization: decentralized administration Used princes and relatives to rule regions Consequence: weak central government and rise of regional powers Iron metallurgy spread through China in first millennium B.C.E. The fall of the Zhou Nomadic invasion sacked Zhou capital in 711 B.C.E. Territorial princes became more independent The Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.) The last king of the Zhou abdicated his position in 256 B.C.E.

The Shang dynasty: 1766-1122 B.C.E.

Arose in the southern and eastern areas of the Xia realm

Many written records and material remains discovered

Bronze metallurgy, monopolized by ruling elite

Horses and chariots traveled with Indo-European migrants to China

Agricultural surpluses supported large troops

A vast network of walled towns

The Shang capital moved six times

Lavish tombs of Shang kings with thousands of objects

Other states besides Shang, for example, Sanxingdui

The Zhou dynasty: 1122-256 B.C.E.

Zhou gradually eclipsed Shang

Mandate of heaven, the right to rule

The Zhou needed to justify the overthrow

Ruler as "the son of heaven"

Mandate of heaven only given to virtuous rulers

Political organization: decentralized administration

Used princes and relatives to rule regions

Consequence: weak central government and rise of regional powers

Iron metallurgy spread through China in first millennium B.C.E.

The fall of the Zhou

Nomadic invasion sacked Zhou capital in 711 B.C.E.

Territorial princes became more independent

The Warring States (403-221 B.C.E.)

The last king of the Zhou abdicated his position in 256 B.C.E.

Society and family in ancient China The social order The ruling elites with their lavish consumption of bronze Hereditary aristocrats with extensive landholding Administrative and military offices Manuals of etiquette Free artisans and craftsmen mostly worked for elites Merchants and trade were important Trade networks linked China with west and south Oar-propelled boats traded with Korea and offshore islands Peasants, the majority of population Landless peasants provided labor Lived in small subterranean houses Women's work: wine making, weaving, silkworm raising Wood, bone, stone tools before iron was spread in the sixth century B.C.E. Slaves, mostly war prisoners

The social order

The ruling elites with their lavish consumption of bronze

Hereditary aristocrats with extensive landholding

Administrative and military offices

Manuals of etiquette

Free artisans and craftsmen mostly worked for elites

Merchants and trade were important

Trade networks linked China with west and south

Oar-propelled boats traded with Korea and offshore islands

Peasants, the majority of population

Landless peasants provided labor

Lived in small subterranean houses

Women's work: wine making, weaving, silkworm raising

Wood, bone, stone tools before iron was spread in the sixth century B.C.E.

Slaves, mostly war prisoners

Family and patriarchy Early dynasties ruled through family and kinship groups Veneration of ancestors Belief in ancestors' presence and their continuing influence Burial of material goods with the dead Offering sacrifices at the graves Family heads presided over rites of honoring ancestors' spirits Patriarchal society evolved out of matrilineal one The rise of large states brought focus on men's contribution After the Shang, females devalued

Early dynasties ruled through family and kinship groups

Veneration of ancestors

Belief in ancestors' presence and their continuing influence

Burial of material goods with the dead

Offering sacrifices at the graves

Family heads presided over rites of honoring ancestors' spirits

Patriarchal society evolved out of matrilineal one

The rise of large states brought focus on men's contribution

After the Shang, females devalued

Early Chinese writing and cultural development The secular cultural tradition Absence of organized religion and priestly class Believed in the impersonal heavenly power-- tian Oracle bones used by fortune-tellers Inscribed question, subjected to heat, read cracks Discovery of the "dragon bones" in 1890s Early Chinese writing, from pictograph to ideograph More than two thousand characters identified on oracle bones Modern Chinese writing is direct descendant of Shang writing Thought and literature Zhou literature--many kinds of books The Book of Change , a manual of diviners The Book of History , the history of the Zhou The Book of Rites , the rules of etiquette and rituals for aristocrats The Book of Songs, a collection of verses--most notable work Most Zhou writings have perished

The secular cultural tradition

Absence of organized religion and priestly class

Believed in the impersonal heavenly power-- tian

Oracle bones used by fortune-tellers

Inscribed question, subjected to heat, read cracks

Discovery of the "dragon bones" in 1890s

Early Chinese writing, from pictograph to ideograph

More than two thousand characters identified on oracle bones

Modern Chinese writing is direct descendant of Shang writing

Thought and literature

Zhou literature--many kinds of books

The Book of Change , a manual of diviners

The Book of History , the history of the Zhou

The Book of Rites , the rules of etiquette and rituals for aristocrats

The Book of Songs, a collection of verses--most notable work

Most Zhou writings have perished

Ancient China and the larger world Chinese cultivators and nomadic peoples of central Asia Nomadic peoples of the steppe lands--herders Exchange of products between nomads and Chinese farmers Nomads frequently invaded rich agricultural society Nomads did not imitate Chinese ways Nomads relied on grains and manufactured goods of the Chinese The southern expansion of Chinese society The Yangzi valley; dependable river; two crops of rice per year The indigenous peoples of southern China Many were assimilated into Chinese agricultural society Some were pushed to hills and mountains Some migrated to Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand The state of Chu in the central region of Yanzi Challenged the Zhou for supremacy Adopted Chinese political and social traditions and writing

Chinese cultivators and nomadic peoples of central Asia

Nomadic peoples of the steppe lands--herders

Exchange of products between nomads and Chinese farmers

Nomads frequently invaded rich agricultural society

Nomads did not imitate Chinese ways

Nomads relied on grains and manufactured goods of the Chinese

The southern expansion of Chinese society

The Yangzi valley; dependable river; two crops of rice per year

The indigenous peoples of southern China

Many were assimilated into Chinese agricultural society

Some were pushed to hills and mountains

Some migrated to Taiwan, Vietnam, Thailand

The state of Chu in the central region of Yanzi

Challenged the Zhou for supremacy

Adopted Chinese political and social traditions and writing

Early societies of Mesoamerica The Olmecs Migration to Mesoamerica Large wave of humans traveled from Siberia to Alaska around 13,000 B.C.E. By 9500 B.C.E., humans reached the southernmost part of South America As hunting became difficult, agriculture began (7500 B.C.E.) Early agriculture: beans, squashes, chilis; later, maize became the staple (5000 B.C.E.) Agricultural villages appeared after 3000 B.C.E. No large domesticated animals, no wheeled vehicles Ceremonial centers by the end of the second millennium B.C.E. Olmecs, the "rubber people,"lived near the Gulf of Mexico (1200 B.C.E. ) Elaborate complexes built The colossal human heads--possibly likenesses of rulers Rulers' power shown in construction of huge pyramids Trade in jade and obsidian Decline of Olmecs: systematically destroyed ceremonial centers by 400 B.C.E. Influence of Olmec: maize, ceremonial centers, calendar, human sacrifice, ball game

The Olmecs

Migration to Mesoamerica

Large wave of humans traveled from Siberia to Alaska around 13,000 B.C.E.

By 9500 B.C.E., humans reached the southernmost part of South America

As hunting became difficult, agriculture began (7500 B.C.E.)

Early agriculture: beans, squashes, chilis; later, maize became the staple (5000 B.C.E.)

Agricultural villages appeared after 3000 B.C.E.

No large domesticated animals, no wheeled vehicles

Ceremonial centers by the end of the second millennium B.C.E.

Olmecs, the "rubber people,"lived near the Gulf of Mexico (1200 B.C.E. )

Elaborate complexes built

The colossal human heads--possibly likenesses of rulers

Rulers' power shown in construction of huge pyramids

Trade in jade and obsidian

Decline of Olmecs: systematically destroyed ceremonial centers by 400 B.C.E.

Influence of Olmec: maize, ceremonial centers, calendar, human sacrifice, ball game

Heirs of the Olmecs: the Maya The Maya lived in the highlands of Guatemala Besides maize, they also cultivated cotton and cacao Tikal was the most important Maya political center, 300 to 900 C.E. Maya warfare: warriors had prestige; captives were slaves or victims Chichén Itzá, power by the ninth century; loose empire in Yucatan Maya decline began in 800 C.E.; many Mayans deserted their cities

The Maya lived in the highlands of Guatemala

Besides maize, they also cultivated cotton and cacao

Tikal was the most important Maya political center, 300 to 900 C.E.

Maya warfare: warriors had prestige; captives were slaves or victims

Chichén Itzá, power by the ninth century; loose empire in Yucatan

Maya decline began in 800 C.E.; many Mayans deserted their cities

Maya society and religion Maya society was hierarchical Kings, priests, and hereditary nobility at the top Merchants were from the ruling class; they served also as ambassadors Professional architects and artisans were important Peasants and slaves were majority of population The Maya calendar had both solar and ritual years interwoven Maya writing was ideographic and syllabic; only four books survive Religious thought Popol Vuh , a Maya creation myth, taught that gods created humans out of maize and water Gods maintained agricultural cycles in exchange for honors and sacrifices Bloodletting rituals honored gods for rains The Maya ball game: sporting, gambling, and religious significance

Maya society was hierarchical

Kings, priests, and hereditary nobility at the top

Merchants were from the ruling class; they served also as ambassadors

Professional architects and artisans were important

Peasants and slaves were majority of population

The Maya calendar had both solar and ritual years interwoven

Maya writing was ideographic and syllabic; only four books survive

Religious thought

Popol Vuh , a Maya creation myth, taught that gods created humans out of maize and water

Gods maintained agricultural cycles in exchange for honors and sacrifices

Bloodletting rituals honored gods for rains

The Maya ball game: sporting, gambling, and religious significance

Heirs of the Olmecs: Teotihuacan The city of Teotihuacan in the highlands of Mexico Colossal pyramids of sun and moon High point between 400 and 600 C.E.; two hundred thousand inhabitants Paintings and murals reflect the importance of priests Teotihuacan society Rulers and priests dominated society Two-thirds of the city inhabitants worked in fields during daytime Artisans were famous for their obsidian tools and orange pottery Professional merchants traded extensively throughout Mesoamerica No sign of military organization or conquest Cultural traditions: ball game, calendar, writing, sacrifices Decline of Teotihuacan from about 650 C.E.; was sacked and destroyed mid-eighth century

The city of Teotihuacan in the highlands of Mexico

Colossal pyramids of sun and moon

High point between 400 and 600 C.E.; two hundred thousand inhabitants

Paintings and murals reflect the importance of priests

Teotihuacan society

Rulers and priests dominated society

Two-thirds of the city inhabitants worked in fields during daytime

Artisans were famous for their obsidian tools and orange pottery

Professional merchants traded extensively throughout Mesoamerica

No sign of military organization or conquest

Cultural traditions: ball game, calendar, writing, sacrifices

Decline of Teotihuacan from about 650 C.E.; was sacked and destroyed mid-eighth century

Early societies of South America Early Andean society and the Chavín cult Early migration to Peru and Bolivia region By 12,000 B.C.E. hunting and gathering peoples reached South America By 8000 B.C.E. they began to experiment with agriculture Complex societies appeared in central Andean region after 1000 B.C.E. Andean societies were located in modern-day Peru and Bolivia Early agriculture in South America Main crops: beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, cotton Fishing supplemented agricultural harvests By 1800 B.C.E. the people produced pottery, built temples and pyramids The Chavín Cult, from about 900 to 300 B.C.E. Complexity of Andean society increases during Chavín Devised techniques of producing cotton textiles and fishing nets Discovered gold, silver, and copper metallurgy Cities began to appear shortly after Chavín cult Early Andeans did not make use of writing Early Andean states: Mochica (300-700 C.E.) in northern Peru Irrigation, trade, military, no writing Artistic legacy: painting on pottery, ceramics

Early Andean society and the Chavín cult

Early migration to Peru and Bolivia region

By 12,000 B.C.E. hunting and gathering peoples reached South America

By 8000 B.C.E. they began to experiment with agriculture

Complex societies appeared in central Andean region after 1000 B.C.E.

Andean societies were located in modern-day Peru and Bolivia

Early agriculture in South America

Main crops: beans, peanuts, sweet potatoes, cotton

Fishing supplemented agricultural harvests

By 1800 B.C.E. the people produced pottery, built temples and pyramids

The Chavín Cult, from about 900 to 300 B.C.E.

Complexity of Andean society increases during Chavín

Devised techniques of producing cotton textiles and fishing nets

Discovered gold, silver, and copper metallurgy

Cities began to appear shortly after Chavín cult

Early Andeans did not make use of writing

Early Andean states: Mochica (300-700 C.E.) in northern Peru

Irrigation, trade, military, no writing

Artistic legacy: painting on pottery, ceramics