A presentation at International Symposium on Environmental Sociology in East Asia 2013, Hohai University, Nanjing, China

1. International Symposium on Environmental Sociology in East
Asia 2013, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
What makes social-ecological
systems robust? A case study of natural resources management in
the Kitakami area of northern Japan
MIYAUCHI Taisuke, Ph.D.
Environmental Sociology
Hokkaido University
miyauchi@let.hokudai.ac.jp

2. Social-ecological system
• A social-ecological system is a complex integration
of nature and society, where the two interact in
complicated ways.
• Studies on social-ecological systems have developed during the last decade.
(Berkes et al. eds., 2003; Walke et al., 2004; Anderies et al., 2004; Folke et al.,
2005; Miyauchi ed., 2009)
• Although a social-ecological system is far more
complicated as a whole, it can be analyzed by focusing on
local systems. One can choose a sustainable area and
analyze sustainability mechanism.
• One focal point of social-ecological systems is its
robustness: What makes social-ecological systems
robust?

3. Purpose
• Investigate what makes socialecological systems robust,
through a case study of natural
resources management in the
Kitakami area of northern Japan.
大室南部神楽保存会』FBページより
Kitakami

4. Why the Kitakami area?
• The area has a variety of natural
resources that local people have
sustainably utilized.
•
•
Marine, forest, and river resources
Communities‟ collective involvement
in resource management
大室南部神楽保存会』FBページより
Kitakami

5. Area description of Kitakami, Miyagi, Japan
• 20 communities (villages)
• Population: 3,718 (2010
census)
• Population over 65 yrs: 30%
• Main industries: fishing (142
engaged), agriculture (86),
construction (305), and
manufacturing (337)
Kitakami

6. 1 km

7. Research method
Since 2004
• Qualitative research
• Conducted semi-structured interviews of
100+ people with a variety of occupations,
ages, and sexes
• Collected historical and statistical material

8. Natural resources in Kitakami
Marine
fish (salmon), abalone, sea urchin,
resources wakame (Undaria pinnatifida), kelp,
seashore seaweeds, and
aquaculture (wakame, kelp, and
scallops)
Forest
wood for charcoal, firewood,
resources pampas grass, and chestnuts
River
basket clams and reeds
resources

9. Marine resources in Kitakami
Marine
fish (salmon), abalone, sea
resources urchin, wakame (Undaria pinnatifida),
kelp, seashore seaweeds,
aquaculture (wakame, kelp, and
scallop), etc.
Forest
wood for charcoal, firewood,
resources pampas grass, chestnuts, etc.
River
basket clams, reeds
resources

10. Marine resources and management bodies
Resource
Management body
Beneficiary
Abalone
fishermen‟s cooperative
households
Fish (salmon)
fishermen‟s cooperative
households
Sea urchins
community organization
(Keiyakuko)
households
Wakame and kelp collecting community organization
(Keiyakuko)
community
organizations and
households
Aquaculture (wakame, kelp,
fishermen‟s cooperative
and scallops)
households
Seashore
seaweeds
community
organizations and
households
(Source) field data
community organization
(Keiyakuko)

11. Keiyakuko
Keiyakuko
Keiyakuko
Keiyakuko
Keiyakuko
1 km

12. What is Keiyakuko （契約講）
?
• Traditional community organization in
certain areas of northern Japan
(Each community has a Keiyakuko.)
• Autonomous governing system
• Mutual aid system
• Conducts traditional rituals
• Owns communal property (e.g., forest land)
• Owns resource usufruct rights
• Handles resource management systems

13. Keiyakuko and resource management
• Keiyakuko is not only a resource
management organization but also an
integrated body.
• Management system works!
• People think they should obey rules set by the
Keiyakuko, which covers various aspects of their
livelihood.

14. Seashore seaweeds case
Five species of seashore seaweeds:
Nori (Porphyra sp.), Funori (Gloiopeltis spp.), Hijiki (Sargassum fusiforme),
Matsumo (Ceratophyllum demersum), and Tsunomata (Chondrus ocellatus)

15. Community rules on seashore seaweed
Community
Komuro
Ohmuro
Kodomari
Rules on seashore seaweeds
Keiyakuko‟s rules. All types are harvested by each household.
Revenue goes to each household
Keiyakuko‟s rules with strict punishment. Collective harvesting on the
first day of open season and individual harvesting beginning from the
second day. The collective harvest revenue goes to the Keiyakuko.
Keiyakuko‟s rules. One type of seaweed is collectively harvested, and
its revenue goes to the Keiyakuko. The other types are collectively
harvested on the first day of open season and individually harvested
beginning from the second day.
Aikawa
Keiyakuko‟s rules. Formerly, collective harvesting on the first and
second days of open season and individual harvesting beginning from
the third day. The collective harvest revenue went to the Keiyakuko.
Currently, all individual harvesting.
Kozashi
Keiyakuko‟s rules. Collective harvesting on the first day of open
season and individual harvesting beginning from the second day. The
collective harvest revenue goes to the Keiyakuko.
Kotaki
Keiyakuko‟s rules. Each household harvests seaweed.
Seaweed of one offshore rock island has open access.

16. Community rules on seashore seaweed
Community
Komuro
Ohmuro
Rules on seashore seaweeds
Keiyakuko‟s rules. All types are harvested by each household.
Revenue goes to each household
Keiyakuko‟s rules with strict punishment. Collective harvesting on the
first day of open season and individual harvesting beginning from the
second day. The collective harvest revenue goes to the Keiyakuko.
Keiyakuko‟s rules. One type of seaweed is collectively harvested, and
its revenue goes to the Keiyakuko. The other types are collectively
harvested on the first day of open season and individually harvested
beginning from the second day.
• Diversity in how each community manages
resources and how each species is managed
Kodomari
• Flexibility in each community‟s situation
Keiyakuko‟s rules. year‟s situation
• Flexibility in eachFormerly, collective harvesting on the first and from
second days of open season and individual harvesting beginning
Aikawa
the third day. The collective harvest revenue went to the Keiyakuko.
Currently, all individual harvesting.
Kozashi
Keiyakuko‟s rules. Collective harvesting on the first day of open
season and individual harvesting beginning from the second day. The
collective harvest revenue goes to the Keiyakuko.
Kotaki
Keiyakuko‟s rules. Each household harvests seaweed.
Seaweed of one offshore rock island has open access.

17. Human-nature interaction in seashore
seaweed collection
Human activities on seashore seaweed are observed to
ensure sustainable production:
1. Locals extend rocks and install new rocks.


“New rocks are productive for seaweed” （S.T., 2010.3.21）
“Installing new rocks are for more seaweed production. Seashore
seaweed used to be something like „rice‟ for us locals.” （E.E., 2009.8.5
）
2. Locals sometimes sow seaweed seed by pouring water
with seed.
3. Harvesting seaweed enables production for the next
year.

“If you do not harvest it, other plants may grow and prevent seaweed
growing.” （E.E., 2009.8.5）
4. Locals leave the bottom part of seaweed to enable
regrowth.

18. Human-nature interaction in seashore
seaweed collection
Human activities on seashore seaweed are observed to
ensure sustainable production:
1. Locals extend rocks and install new rocks.


“New rocks are productive for seaweed” （S.T., 2010.3.21）
“Installing new rocks are for more seaweed production. Seashore
seaweed used to be something like „rice‟ for us locals.” （E.E., 2009.8.5
）
Interaction between humans and
2. Locals sometimes sow seaweed seed by pouring water
nature is crucial to sustainability.
with seed.
3. Harvesting seaweed enables production for the next
year.

“If you do not harvest it, other plants may grow and prevent seaweed
growing.” （E.E., 2009.8.5）
4. Locals leave the bottom part of seaweed to enable
regrowth.

19. Findings from marine resources management
• What is crucial to local resource
management?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Interaction between humans and nature
Existence of local management
Integrity of local management body
Multi-layered system
Diversity depending on resources and
communities
6. Flexibility in management

20. Forest resources in Kitakami
Marine
fish (salmon etc.), abalone, sea
resources urchin, wakame (Undaria pinnatifida),
kelp, seashore seaweeds,
aquaculture (wakame, kelp, and
scallops), etc.
Forest
wood for charcoal, firewood,
resources pampas grass, chestnuts, etc.
River
basket clams, reeds
resources

22. Charcoal-making
Charcoal-making until the1960s
• One of the main income sources
• Broadleaf trees are cut from the
following forests:



State forests
Private forests
Community forests: Keiyakuko-owned

23. Rules in charcoal-making from state and community
forests
• Government permits Keiyakuko to cut trees
in the state forest.

Permission is granted as per customary rights.
• Keiyakuko controls the rules for state
community forests.
 Keiyakuko divides the area into each
household under the rules.
 Only Keiyakuko members can join.
 Keiyakuko decides where each member
can cut trees in the permitted forest.

24. Pampas grass (Miscanthus sinensis)

25. Pampas grass (Miscanthus sinensis)
• Pampas grass grew widely in forests
until a large cedar forestation in the
1960s.
• People are free to use pampas
grass even from the state forest.

26. Chestnut (Castanea crenata)
• Until the 1950s, chestnuts
were gathered as food.
• The locals were free to gather
chestnuts.
• However, there was a loose rule or
norm as to the day on which to begin
the harvest.

27. Forest production and management rules
Charcoalmaking
Keiyakuko controlled with
strict rules
Pampas grass
(Miscanthus
sinensis)
Free to collect
Chestnut
(Castanea
crenata)
Loose rule as to the day on
which to begin the harvest

28. Findings from forest resource management
1. Despite ownership, community rights
exist.
2. Collective rights and rules are crucial.
3. Rules are flexible depending on
species.

29. River resources in Kitakami
Marine
Fish (salmon etc.), abalone, sea
resources urchin, wakame (Undaria pinnatifida),
kelp, Seashore seaweeds,
aquaculture (wakame, kelp, and
scallop), etc.
Forest
wood for charcoal, firewood,
resources Pampas grass, chestnuts, etc.
River
Reeds, basket clams (Corbicula
resources japonica)

30. Natural resources in Kitakami

31. reed bed
１ km

32. Reed bed
(10 km and 150 ha)
(Phragmites australis)

33. Reed bed (Phragmites australis)
• Highly acclaimed landscape
• “Rare and valuable”
• Symbol of local nature

34. Reed bed as symbolic
landscape of the area

35. Reeds‟ value for biodiversity
• Many ecological studies have
evaluated reeds.
(van der Putten, 1997; Suzuki et al., 1993; Fujii, 2001)


It purifies water.
It provides a habitat for fish and
maintains biodiversity.

36. Reed harvesting

37. Contribution of human activities to
biodiversity
• Many ecological studies have
revealed that human involvement
is crucial to the sustainability of
the reed ecosystem.



It prevents other species‟ invasion.
It promotes new bud growth.
It preserves nutrition.

38. “River improvement project” and
the birth of the reed bed in Kitakami
Before the
implementation of
the river
improvement
project
Old Kiatami River
Research Area
Source: Ministry of Land
Infrastructure and Transport

39. “River improvement project” and
the birth of the reed bed in Kitakami
River improvement
project:
1911–1931
↓
The reed bed
appeared.
New Kiatami River
Built a channel
Research Area
widened the river
Source: Ministry of Land
Infrastructure and Transport

40. １ km
Before the
implementation of
the river
improvement
project (1915)

41. The reed bed appeared
reed bed
１ km
After the completion
of the river
improvement
project (1936)

42. Before the
implementation of the
river improvement project
=> After the project
The reed bed at present
Source: Kitakami Choshi (The
History of Kitakami-cho), 2005

44. Reed bed

45. Reed bed

46. Reed bed with harvesting

47. Reed bed without harvesting

48. Human–nature interaction
Human activities have maintained the reed
bed landscape.

49. Conflicts over the
right to harvest reeds
in the 1930s
１ ｋｍ
After the completion
of the river
improvement
project (1936)

50. Conflicts over the
right to harvest reeds
in the 1930s
A consensus was
achieved, wherein each
community had the right
to harvest the reeds
bordering its area.
１ ｋｍ
After the completion
of the river
improvement
project (1936)

51. Reed use and communities‟ rights
• History of usage


Initially, people from each community
harvested and sold the reeds.
Later, local entrepreneurs started
harvesting and selling the reeds, and they
paid a commission to the community
(Keiyakuko).

52. Usage of reeds over the years

53. Usage of reeds over the years

54. Reed use and communities‟ rights
• History of usage


Initially, people from each community
harvested and sold the reeds.
Later, local entrepreneurs started harvesting
and selling the reeds, and they paid a
commission to the community (Keiyakuko).
• Rules


The reeds are to be harvested during a
particular season.
Income from the commission goes to the
Keiyakuko.
• The communities still hold the right
to harvest the reeds.

55. Findings from reed management
• What is crucial for sustainable use of
reeds?
1. Interaction between humans and nature
2. Consensus and setting up collective rules
3. Continuation of collective rights despite
the change of usage

56. Conclusion:
What makes social-ecological
systems robust and resilient?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Interaction between humans and
nature
Collective rights and rules
Integrated community organizations
A multi-layered management
system
Flexibility in management

57. Bibliography
Anderies, J. M., M. A. Janssen, and E. Ostrom. 2004. “A framework to analyze the robustness of social-ecological
systems from an institutional perspective”. Ecology and Society 9(1): 18.
URL:http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss1/art18
Berkes , Fikret, Johan Colding and Carl Folke eds., 2003, Navigating Social-ecological Systems: Building Resilience
for Complexity and Change, Cambridge University Press
Folke, Carl,Thomas Hahn, Per Olsson, and Jon Norberg, 2005, “Adaptive governance of social-ecological systems”,
Annual Review of Environment and Resources, Vol. 30: 441-473
Fujii, Shigeho, 2001, “Biwakogan ni okeru Yoshi Gunraku no Kino to Genjo” (The Function and the situation of Reed
Plantations on Lake Biwa), Kankyo Gijutu (Environmental Conservation Engineering), 30(2): 16-106. (in
Japanese)
Miyauchi, Taisuke ed., 2009, Hansaibai no Kankyo Shakaigaku (Environmental Sociology on Semi-domestication),
Kyoto: Showado (in Japanese)
Miyauchi, Taisuke ed., 2013, Naze Kankyo Hozen wa Umaku Ikanainoka?: Genbakarano Junnoteki Gabanansu no
Kanousei (Why conservation fails?: The Possibility of Local Adaptive Governance), Tokyo: Shinsensha (in
Japanese)
Suzuki, Norio et al., 1993, “Biwako ni okeru Yoshi Gunraku ni Kansuru Kenkyu: Yoshi Gunrakunai no Butsuri,
Kagaku, Seitaiteki Seijo” (Study on the Reed Community at Lake Biwa; Physical, Chemical and Ecological
Characteristics in the Reed Community), Shiga Daigaku Kyoiku Gakubu Kiyo, Shizen Kagaku, Kyoiku Kagaku
(Memoirs of the Faculty of Education, Shiga University. Natural Science), 43:19-41. (in Japanese)
van der Putten, Wim H., 1997, "Die-back of Phragmitesaustralis in European wetlands: an overview of the European
Research Programme on Reed Die-back and Progression (1993-1994)", Aquatic Botany, 59 (1997) 263-275
Walker , Brian, C. S. Holling, Stephen R. Carpenter, and Ann Kinzig, 2004, “Resilience, Adaptability and
Transformability in Social-ecological Systems”, Ecology and Society 9(2): 5. URL:
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol9/iss2/art5/

58. March 11, 2011, Great East Japan Earthquake
A tsunami-stricken area

59. Casualties in Kitakami
Population before tsunami
Casualties (dead and missing)
3,718
265
Households before tsunami
1151
Houses destroyed
1096

60. Collective natural
resource management
system
Community cohesion
Collective and
successful rebuilding
process
Rebuilding process:
e.g., workshop on relocation project

61. Thank you.
MIYAUCHI Taisuke, Ph.D,
Hokkaido University
miyauchi@let.hokudai.ac.jp