Women and the Wage Gap

Women and the Wage Gap in America
Meghan Smith
Roger Williams University

2 Women and the Wage Gap in America
Abstract
The wage gap between men and women has been an apparent issue ever since women
have entered the work force. The judgement of people’s capabilities should be the main factor
when it comes to one’s salary; not their gender, race, age, or the state in which they work.
Working women in almost all occupations and all parts of the country have been subject to pay
discrimination, with or without their knowledge.
This report examines the different variables that create a woman’s own personal wage
gap based on her age, occupation, race as well as what state she works in. Furthermore, the
report will look into how society’s gender roles play a part in creating and maintaining the wage
gap, as well as the economic benefits America will gain from closing the wage gap completely
over the next fifty years.
The research used for the report was obtained from various academic and peer reviewed
articles, as well as from current events. Primary research was also obtained through a survey of
fifty random college students, ages 18 to 22; however, the results are statistically invalid.
This report concludes that the wage gap between men and women remains an important
issue in which the people of this nation need to put an end to. It is recommended that society
should gain more knowledge regarding the wage gap in order to make educated decisions and
take a step in the right direction towards equality in the workplace.

Women and the Wage Gap in America
“A woman is like a tea bag; you never know how strong it is until it's in hot water.”
-Eleanor Roosevelt, 1884-1962
Throughout history, women have been challenged time and time again to break past
social normalities and rightfully accept their role in society. They have earned the right to vote,
became literary geniuses, scientists, congresswomen, even flown across the Atlantic Ocean, and
soon, they will be paid equally in the workplace. Women are fierce, fearless, and determined to
be the best they can be, regardless of what they choose to do in life. They are strong and resilient,
and will work hard to see the wage gap diminished, and yet remembered, as an important
accomplishment in history.
Regardless of gender, ethnicity, or age, getting paid less than you are worth is unjust for
anyone involved. Today’s fight is between men and women, because this unbalanced pay gap
has been haunting women in the workforce for years. Women are paid on average only 78 cents
for every dollar a man makes, and the number is even less for minority groups (Hill 2016).
Although there have been laws and regulations put in place attempting to ensure equal pay in the
workplace, women of all ethnicities, ages, locations and skill sets are still being treated less than
their male counterparts, ultimately causing a negative effect on not only their own well-being,
but the American economy as well.
Women are affected by the wage gap as soon as they enter the work force, and it only
gets worse as the years progress. This increasing gap negatively affects many women’s lifestyle
and can have a huge impact on their retirement plans and their families. Women of minority
groups also see the largest pay gap of all ranging from only 55 cents to 69 for every dollar a man

makes (with the exception of Asian-American women, who are paid more than white women)
(Hill 2016).
Other factors that will be discussed include the state each women lives in as well as their
occupation. Depending on what part of the country as well as the diversity of your workplace,
the wage gap can become larger or smaller than the average. As for occupation, it is common for
most women to work in feminine jobs and men to work in masculine jobs, and when they
disregard these social normality’s its clear to researchers how distinguished the wage gap is. An
important concept that is conveyed throughout the report is regarding the deep rooted societal
norms and the impact they have on gender roles.
Over the next fifty years, if the U.S. were to close the wage gap our economy would
improve immensely. Decreased poverty for families as well as for single mothers, increased cash
flow, and an increased gross domestic product would all be effects of the closed gap. Not to
mention the benefits any average middle class family would have from receiving a few more
well-earned dollars. Less debt? Books for college? Paying the electric bill? The opportunities are
endless.
Despite researchers active role in knowing all that goes on with the wage gap issue, these
questions remain unresolved. Why do gender roles still play such a major role in society? Are
males from minority groups affected just as much as their female counterparts? If more women
speak up, can the gap be closed quicker? What is the wage gap like in other countries, and what
is being done about it? Is it larger, smaller or non-existent? How can we make society view
women as equals?

The writer hopes that this paper will bring to light the multiple factors that contribute to
the wage gap across the United States, how society has created and is continuing to maintain the
wage gap, as well as the economic benefits that can come of closing the gap. It will focus on how
age, occupation, the state in which you live in and your ethnic background has shaped the size of
each woman’s individual wage gap. This report will feature a literature review to discuss the
ongoing research trends within the wage gap issue, an abstract, analysis, and field research from
a statistically invalid survey featuring 50 random Roger Williams University students which will
provide insight on the thought process of a small portion of society. Finally the report will
include a conclusion, recommendations to solve the problem for the future, as well as a list of
references used throughout the report.
The field research results demonstrate a mediocre understanding of the wage gap, and
some unrealistic expectations for when the issue will be resolved. It concludes that many
students are aware of the problem, and believe that something should be done, which is a step in
the right direction. From the research, it is obvious that people care, however they need to be
more educated on the issue. Increased knowledge will start the conversations; people will begin
to understand and see the wage gap for what it is. The writer hopes that with this report,
conversations will be started and knowledge will be spread; ideally inspiring people to look past
gender normality’s and work together to rid America of the wage gap.
Literature Review
For many years, women have fought to earn complete equality in society, government,
work, and overall opportunity. When women began to have an active role in the work force after
WWII, questions began to rise regarding the equality in the workplace. As the years went by,
women began to take a stand and demand equality, which led President John F. Kennedy to sign

the Equal Pay Act of 1963 (EPA, 2016). Now 53 years later, the wage gap still exists and will
not be completely closed for another 50 years. Women have been mistreated in the workplace,
earning only 79 cents for every dollar a man makes while performing the same tasks and having
the same job title (The Simple Truth, 2016). In 2009, President Obama signed the Lily Ledbetter
Fair Pay Act, as an addition to the Equal Pay Act of 1963, hoping to speed along the process in
regards to closing the wage gap. The social, legal, and economic impacts the wage gap has on the
United States creates a strong argument as to why society should want to see the gap close as
soon as possible.
The literature review is an overview of scholarly research from a number of academic
databases including CQ Researcher and ProQuest, peer reviewed and edited sources, as well as
relevant governmental documents, such as The Equal Pay Act of 1963, and The Fair Pay Act of
2009. The literature review will provide a historical background to show where women in the
workforce began, where they are today and the current issue with the wage gap. The literature
review will compare and contrast many scholarly sources in order to obtain a complete
understanding of the wage gap conflict.
From reading through the research from many accredited sources, readers should
understand that the presence of the wage gap is damaging women’s success, the overall economy
and the equality status of women in the workforce. It is important for readers to become more
involved in closing the wage gap for the sake of one’s sister, mother, or daughter; and for the
basic reason that it is just morally and ethically wrong. Most people in today’s society believe
that women do not deserve to be viewed as less than men in any way. Although there have been
laws and regulations put in place to ensure equal pay in the workplace, women of all races and

backgrounds are still being treated less than their male counterparts and it is negatively affecting
not only their own well-being, but the American economy as well.
Historical Background
In 1963, President John F. Kennedy signed the first ever gender equality act, also
known as the Equal Pay Act, which is under the Labor Standards Act of 1938. The Equal Pay
Act was created by the government to prohibit sex discrimination in the workplace and more
specifically wage discrimination. In addition, the law prohibits the discrimination of an employee
who has spoken up about his or her wage discrimination while in a labor organization (any
organization of any kind, or any agency in which employees participate and which exists with for
the purpose of wages, rates of pay or conditions of work) (EPA, 2016). According to Congress
and the women who view it as an issue, the act states that it was created due to the fact that the
wage gap contained depressed wages and living standards which are necessary for their health
and efficiency; prevents the maximum utilization of the available labor resources; causes labor
disputes; creates an unfair method of competition. The Equal Pay Act was the first act that put
women first, and although it was seen to have limited impact, researchers and the people saw it
as a step in the right direction. In the article, “$17 million owed women under Equal Pay Act”
journalist Elizabeth Shelton (1970), of The Boston Globe, discusses the how with the passing of
the Equal Pay Act, the Labor Department owed female workers a total of $17 million in back
pay. Shelton (1970) divulges which companies were treating their female employees unfairly,
and brings to light the current changes that were being made after the passing of the Equal Pay
Act.
Not until 2009 did the American women publicly start the quest to equality once again.
Within the first few months he was in office, President Obama signed his first bill, The Lily

Ledbetter Fair Pair Act. In the speech and press release from the White House, “Remarks of
President Barack Obama on the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act Bill Signing,” The Lily
Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 adds that the discrimination in the work place based on sex, race,
color, religion or national origin is illegal and the employee has 180 days after each paycheck to
file an equal pay lawsuit. The bill was named after a woman who was denied the opportunity to
sue her employer (Wal-Mart) for wage discrimination because the paycheck expired (Remarks of
President Obama, 2009). The Fair Pay Act of 2009 was also under the Labor Standards Act of
1938 as well as an addition to the Equal Pay Act of 1963. With these two acts in place, most
people assumed the wage gap would eventually diminish, however based on our current statistics
we are not so close. They were a step in the right direction, however researchers believe that, for
those who want to see the wage gap gone, more must be done now.
Analysis
Within the topic of the wage gap, many researchers have found a few common themes,
including the wage gap between men and women, women of minority groups, the economic
impacts as well as the psychological, and societal impacts the gap has on women and the rest of
America. In addition to these common themes, there have been many articles issuing possible
responses and solutions for the wage gap issue and researchers believe that a solution could solve
many problems both within and outside the immediate issue.
Women of minority groups. Within the wage gap controversy, researchers concluded
that there are two sub topics of the issue; the wage gap between men and women and the wage
gap between men and women of minority groups (Ellis & Hegewisch, 2015; Altonji & Comolli,
2006). Researchers like Emily Ellis and Ariane Hegewisch, who work closely with the Institute
For Women’s Policy Research, have found that even when comparing a white woman to a

woman of color, white women make $1,100 weekly in management, business, or financial
occupations whereas a woman of color would only on average make $940 (Ellis & Hegewisch,
2015). Furthermore, when looking at weekly median earnings, Latino women make on average
$548 per week, compared to a white man who would make $981 per week (Ellis & Hegewisch,
2015). In the dissertation, “The Economics of Sexual Orientation and Racial Perception”
author’s Renzo Comolli and Joseph Altonji (2006), argue that the main characteristic that affect
earnings are in fact race. The authors support their claims by conducting research through Yale
University and their overall goal is to look more deeply into the issue, showing readers that there
is more to the discrimination than just gender. They believe that there is an even larger gap based
on subconscious stereotypes and racist thoughts (Altonji & Comolli, 2006). In the article, “How
Pay Inequality Hurts Women of Color”, author Sophia Kerby’s (2013) agrees with Comoli and
Altonji (2006) and argues that the issue of the wage gap when specifically looking at women of
color is much wider and just as important as the issue is when just looking at it in a broader
sense. In the academic article, “Racial Wage Inequality: Job Segregation and Devaluation across
U.S. Labor Markets” authors Matt Huffman and Phillip Cohen (2004), of the American Journal
of Sociology, discuss the wage gap by looking into the demographics of certain areas, testing
their hypothesis of whether or not the population of black employees impacts the size of the
wage gap in that community. Another source comes from the website, Institute for Women’s
Policy Research (IWPR), where authors discuss the impact of the wage gap, amongst men and
women and compare it by use of statistics and graphs to show the wage gap difference amongst
women of color by state. The website supports their claim by conducting intense research and
works with the women’s studies, public policy and public administration programs at The
George Washington University. Within the IWPR website, researchers Ariane Hegewisch and

Emily Ellis (2015) claim that when looking at the issue between ethnicities, the size of the wage
gap also varies due to each woman’s occupation. The researchers created charts from the vast
amount of resources the IWPR contains, and broke down the gap between men and women, to
men and women of color, Hispanic women, and Asian women, as well as between the
occupations of, management, business and financial; professional; service; sales; office and
administrative support; natural resources, construction, and maintenance; and production,
transportation and material moving. With the breakdown of all the general occupation categories,
the researchers were able to show the reader in which industry the gap is seen the most, as well
as how it affects each race being researched (Ellis & Hegewisch 2015). In the academic article,
“Race, human capital, and wage discrimination in STEM professions in the United States”
authors Phillip Broyles and Weston Fenner (2010) discuss the presence of the wage gap
specifically in the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) professions.
Broyles and Fenner focused on the causes of the wage gap which included mainly race, but also
the importance of human capital within these male dominant professions (Broyles & Fenner,
2010).
All of these authors have seen the wage gap issue in a more microscopic view, which has
allowed them to understand the issue from many different points of view, specifically from that
of another race or different occupations. They have uncovered the social, psychological and
economic impacts that these women have experienced, and brought to light an even bigger issue.
Social and psychological impacts. Another common theme researchers have found is
among women that are subject to the wage gap discrimination is the overall feeling that women
are where they belong in the work force and this is what they deserve. Researcher Claire Miller
(2016) from the New York Times discusses how not many women speak up in regards to their

wage issues because they do not know the salary of their fellow employees and therefore do not
know how to compare it. For many people, discussing money and wages is not socially correct or
acceptable, therefore making it difficult to proceed with questioning others and their pay.
Research shows that another reason some women do not speak up when it comes to their wages
is because of the fact that they do not believe they can change things (Cabeza, Johnson, & Tyner,
2011; Cohen & Huffman, 2007). In the academic article, “Working for the Woman?” authors
Phillip Cohen and Matt Huffman (2007) discuss the wage gap between female and male
managers with a conclusion that the glass ceiling is the main reason for the wage gap existence.
The glass ceiling - a metaphorical block that doesn’t allow women or minorities to succeed past a
certain point (Cabeza, Johnson, & Tyner, 2011) - which women are put under, makes them feel
as if there is nothing to be done, no more room to grow and change in the workforce. In the
academic article, “Glass Ceiling and Maternity Leave as Important Contributors to the Gender
Wage Gap”, authors M.F. Cabeza, J.B. Johnson, and L.J. Tyner (2011) agree with Cohen and
Huffman, and discuss the glass ceiling as well as maternity leave. The authors discuss the
implications that come with the presence of a glass ceiling, and how it mentally restricts women.
In regards to maternity leave, the researchers found that the overall mentality of women is that
they need to return to work due to the fear of falling behind, the need to earn money, and the
potential of being let go (Cabeza, Johnson, & Tyner, 2011). These potential “obstacles” (as some
may see them) create a subconscious discrimination between male and female employees, and
many researchers believe are the main reasons for the existence of the wage gap (Cabeza,
Johnson, & Tyner, 2011; Cohen & Huffman, 2007; Miller, 2016).
Economic Impacts. The economic impacts are viewed by researchers as the best way to
convince those who are unconvinced of the wage gap’s importance. Based on many authors and

scholars’ research, fixing the wage gap could help improve our economy tremendously. On the
website, National Women’s Law Center (2016), the authors claim that the wage gap has a highly
negative effect on family’s welfare and the U.S. economy as a whole. The NWLC has been a
strong advocate for women’s rights since 1972 and has statistical evidence to back their claims.
Also, in the digital file, “The Economic Impact of Equal Pay By State” authors Heidi Hartmann,
Ph.D., Jeffrey Hayes, Ph.D., and Jennifer Clark (2016) from The Institute for Women’s Policy
Research agree that the wage gap has a strong economic impact, but varies from state to state,
and from occupation to occupation. The authors were able to access national reports that present
data from each state regarding the wage gap issue. In today’s day and age, more families are
made up of two working parents, not just one sole supporter. With the current economy, for
many people, this way of life is critical to remaining financially stable, so one can see why the
presence of the wage gap can create issues in the long run. In the academic article, “The Gender
Pay Gap”, authors Francine Blau and Lawrence Kahn (2000) conducted research through
Stanford University with over forty resources, discussing the trends of the wage gap as well as
the economic explanations for the wage gap. In the academic journal, “The Macroeconomic
Implications of Rising Wage Inequality in the United States,” authors Jonathan Heathcote, Kjetil
Storesletten and Giovanni L. Violante (2010) created an economic model and equation to
calculate the wage gap based on different factors such as number of hours worked or education.
Each equation is matched with a graph that was created based off of the researcher’s data, and
most of them are separated by gender and then combined to compare and contrast (Kjetil,
Storesletten & Violante, 2010). Also, in the digital file, “How Equal Pay for Working Women
would Reduce Poverty and Grow the American Economy” authors, Heidi Hartmann, Ph.D.,
Jeffrey Hayes, Ph.D., and Jennifer Clark (2014), for The Institute for Women’s Policy Research,

claim that if the wage gap was closed, it would significantly improve the American economy in
the long run. The authors support their claim by conducting intense research and working with
the women’s studies, public policy and public administration programs at The George
Washington University and are using their research to present the possibilities that could arise
from eliminating the wage gap. If women continue to be paid less than they deserve, this could
lead to further inequality, and ultimately continue to harm the U.S.’s unstable economy.
Conflicting Arguments
Some researchers also believe that the wage gap is not specified between men and
women, but rather based solely on the experience each person has with no bias affecting it. In the
article, “Wage Gap for Women: Both Sides of the Story” author Mary Ann Cooper (2014) argues
that the wage gap issue is disregarding some important points when it comes to wages. The
author supports her claims by conducting in depth research and the article was written for an elite
organization, The Hispanic Outlook to Higher Education. One of Cooper’s goals is to discuss the
other factors that could affect your salary such as experience or educational background. Cooper
(2014) believes in the wage gap and would like to see companies hire and pay fairly, based on
employee performance, experience and overall value – not gender. In the article, “Harvard
Professor Takes down Gender Wage Gap Myth,” author Ashe Schow discusses the interview
between Harvard economics professor Claudia Goldin and journalist Stephen Dubner. This
interview was conducted for Goldin to explain to the public how she believes the wage gap is
blown out of proportion and the causes for the gap are inaccurate. Goldin believes that the only
reason for a wage gap is due to the choices that men and women both make within the
workforce.

Solutions
With the pay gap still present, there are many researchers as well as politicians and
civilians who are actively looking for solutions. The press release “New Steps to Advance Equal
Pay” released by the White House on January 29, 2016, discusses some new additions to the Fair
Pay Act of 2009. The goal of this release is for President Obama to gain support in order to
create a new act that will force major companies, with more than 100 employees, to release
salary information to the public. The government believes that with the release of the salaries,
companies are more likely to treat their employees fairly in regards to not only gender, but also
with race, sexual orientation, bias and favorites. In the article “What We Can Do to Close the
Pay Gap”, author Claire Miller (2016) for The New York Times discusses the wage gap and
agrees with the action President Obama wishes to take. The author supports her claim due to
research on the wage gap and discussing the idea with many important and prominent companies
such as Salesforce.com and Google, as well as talking to many social scientists. From her
research, she found Jake Rosenfeld, a sociologist at Washington University, who has found out
that salary transparency will in fact raises wages, due to the fact that being able to see your
coworkers pay, you have a legitimate argument when it comes to your own salary (Miller,
2016). For Miller (2016), the goal is to start discussion on a possible solution to the wage gap
and believes that by starting a discussion, it could create more laws or gain support for the ideas
in the long run. In the article, “To Shine a Light on Salary Gap, Obama Wants Companies to
Disclose Pay Data” author Camila Domonoske (2016) relays the information and ideas that
President Obama wishes to put into action before leaving office in 2017. President Obama
wishes to put into action the publishing of wages, as well as creating a new law known as the

Paycheck Fairness Act, which will protect women from backlash when they are seeking justice
for pay discrimination (Domonoske, 2016).
Conclusion
The research has shown many different causes and impacts that the wage gap has had and
will continue to have, on society, the economy and the psychological health of women across
America. Although there are some conflicting arguments, the majority of researchers have made
it clear that the wage gap is a prominent issue between not only men and women, but between
men and women of minority groups as well. This literature review was a precise way of
discussing the many themes found by researchers within the issue, as well as the origins of the
wage gap and what has been done in the past to try and diminish it. From this literature review,
the reader should have been able to get a sense of the topic being presented and also an idea of
the various types of research that was found in the process.
Analysis
Women across many different occupations are being treated as less than their male
counterparts when it comes to wage equality. We have been privy to this issue for many years
now, ever since majority of women began working during the First World War. It has been
almost a hundred years since the vast influx of women into the workforce and yet, here we are,
still earning only 78 cents on a man’s dollar. Although there have been laws and regulations put
in place to ensure equal pay in the workplace, women of all races and backgrounds are still being
treated less than their male counterparts and it is negatively affecting not only their own well-
being, but the American economy as well.
Throughout the literature review, researchers discussed the common theme of inequality
between men and women of different races, as well as the social, psychological and economic

impacts that the wage gap has on America. The overall conclusions from the resources was that
researchers believe the wage gap is still a very prominent issue in today’s society. Research has
also brought out more inequalities when it comes to different backgrounds, not just women of
color specifically, as well as the many different fields of work such as business and finance,
administration and the various STEM fields, which have the most drastic wage gaps. The reasons
for such a large space vary, such as one’s age, what state they work in, and their ethnicity,
however they all contribute equally to the social and economic impacts the wage gap has created
in America.
For many years, women have been wrongfully treated in the workplace when it comes to
their pay. As of 2016, women make, on average, 78 cents for every dollar a man makes. Over the
years, thanks to two very important acts, the wage gap has made significant strides to becoming
non-existent. These two acts are the Equal Pay Act of 1963 signed by President John F. Kennedy
and the Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 signed by President Barack Obama. Each act has
served a purpose to attempt to close the wage gap, but unfortunately it hasn’t been enough. At
the rate America is going, the wage gap will not be closed for over 50 years. That means it will
take over 100 years since the first act until it is gone. An entire century.
Contributing Factors of the Wage Gap
When looking at the wage gap issue, it is important to look at the many contributing
factors that determine the size of the wage gap across the country. These include the age,
occupation, as well as the state you work in.
Age. Women are affected by the wage gap as soon as they enter the work force and the
gap keeps increasing and increasing as the years go by. According to the National Women’s Law
Center, women ages 15 to 24 are paid 84 cents for every dollar their male coworkers are paid and

women ages 45 to 64 are paid 73 cents for every dollar (NWLC 2016). As for women 65 and
older, the gap is even larger; women are paid only 67 cents compared to their male counterpart
Figure 1
(NWLC 2016). As seen in the graph above, from the American Association of University
Women (AAUW), we can see the differences of men and women’s salaries as they age (Hill
2016). The increase of the gap has an increasingly negative affect on women as they age, not to
mention the impact it has on their families and their futures. The economy will continue to
change and things will get more and more expensive, and when considering their future,
retirement funds come into question as well.
State. Another contributing factor for the size of one’s own wage gap is the state they
live in. According to a survey done by the AAUW, women who work in Louisiana are paid 65
percent of what men make, Utah 67 percent and Wyoming 69 percent (Hill 2016). States with
major cities have varying gaps, New York with the smallest at 87 percent, Massachusetts at 82

percent, California at 85 percent, Illinois at 79 percent, and Texas at 79 percent (Hill 2016).
Based on the data, we can see that the states with larger populations have smaller wage gaps,
although not by much.
Occupation. The gender wage gap and occupation segregation has created a large rift in
today’s society. Women work in fields primarily dominated by women such as teaching and
nursing, while men work in fields primarily dominated by men, such as laborers and managers.
However with the occupation segregation coming to a close, we see more women and men going
beyond their gender’s stereotypical job. With these lines blurred, we also begin to see the wage
gap more clearly. According to researchers from the Institute for Women’s Policy Research
(IWPR) in male dominated fields, women make on average 82 percent of their male counterparts
(Ellis & Hegewisch, 2015). These fields include Chief Executives (69%), Software Developers
(86%) and Managers (74%) (Ellis & Hegewisch, 2015). Over the past decade, there has been a
steady increase of women in managerial positions, from one third to one half, however the gap is
still in place (Cohen & Huffman 2007). Additional fields that have been recently trying to break
through the occupation segregation and the wage gap issues are the science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics fields, also known as the STEM fields. According to an analysis
done by AAUW of the Census Bureau’s 2013 American Community Survey data, women in
engineering are paid only $65,000 a year compared to their male counterparts who are paid
$79,000 a year (Hill 2016). Breaking through the stereotypical job barriers is an accomplishment
in today’s society, so to limit a woman’s pay based on the fact that she is in fact a woman is an
injustice.
Ethnicity. One of the more commonly known reasons of a wage gap between men and
women is because of a woman’s race. Discrimination is seen in all shapes and styles and is no

different when it comes to wages. According to the chart shown below, we see that Hispanic and
Latina women are paid 54 percent of what a white male would be paid and an American Indian
only 59 percent (Hill 2016). African American women are paid 63 percent of what a white male
counterpart would be paid (Hill 2016). The only woman who would be even close to an equal
wage is an Asian American and even then she would be being paid 10 percent less than her white
male counterpart (Hill 2016). Researchers who work closely with the Institute For Women’s
Policy Research have found that when comparing a white woman to a woman of color, white
women make $1,100 weekly in management, business, or financial occupations whereas a
woman of color would only on average make $940 (Ellis & Hegewisch, 2015). Some researchers
Figure 2
(Hill 2016)
believe that there is a high correlation between the amount a minority is paid and the population
of the minority group in that area (Cohen & Huffman 2004). Researchers Matt Huffman and
Philip Cohen looked into the correlation to find that when living in an area with a larger black
population; white people feel threatened and regress back into racial inequality patterns (Cohen

& Huffman 2004). This theory and research is specific to the black community, however, it is
obvious that each minority can be easily seen in the same way. The subconscious stereotypes are
still creating a problem for those in minority groups and it is unfair to see these women being
paid less based on their background and skin color, when in fact they can do their job just as
good if not better than their white male counterparts.
Society’s Impact on the Wage Gap
As one can see, the wage gap affects numerous women for a wide range of reasons. Age,
occupation, ethnicity, and what state you live in all contribute to the wage gap in its own way.
However researchers have found that the main reason for the existence is because of society’s
norms. Women work in feminine jobs, men work in masculine jobs. Women take care of the
kids, men take care of the money. People are brought up with this way of thinking and it is
taking a toll on many women’s salaries. In a statistically invalid survey of 50 Roger Williams
University students, when asked what the reason for the wage gap was the results were extremely
telling, as shown in the graph below. A total of 70.6 percent of the surveyed students believe that
the reason for the wage gap is due to society’s gender roles. This ultimately proves that the
gender roles in society are the root of the issue and serves as a major obstacle for women
Figure 3
In your opinion, what is the main reason the wage gap exists?

to jump over. According to researchers, women are viewed as unable to work long hours, too
emotional, not tough enough, and unable to make decisions (Cabez, Johnson, & Tyner, 2011). In
the work force, many women feel as if they deserve this way of life and even for those who see
how wrong it is, they don’t feel as if they can do anything to improve their situation. In order to
obtain equality, women need to speak up and demand it. However for many, it’s against the
unspoken rule of never talking about your salary. In the same survey, when asked whether or not
you were discouraged to speak about your salary to another coworker, 33.3 percent of students
Figure 4
Have you ever been discouraged to speak about your pay with a friend or a coworker?
answered yes as seen in the graph above. The idea of not being able to speak up regarding your
own salary makes it difficult to make a change. Another obstacle women face is the looming
glass ceiling - a metaphorical block that doesn’t allow women or minorities to succeed past a
certain point (Cabeza, Johnson, & Tyner, 2011). The glass ceiling is used to describe mostly
managerial positions and its presence can create a mental block for women, and stunt their ability
to succeed. For example, as of 2011, women hold only 14.4 percent of executive positions in
Fortune 500 companies, showing how difficult it is for an intelligent, driven and talented woman
to reach such a position (Cabeza, Johnson, & Tyner, 2011). This statistic reflects greatly on the

previous comments regarding a woman’s ability to make decisions or whether or not she’s
“tough enough”, because to be a top executive at a major company is a highly stressful and
difficult job, however that does not mean a woman cannot handle it. When looking at their
salaries, research shows that for business managers, women are paid on average $63,000 while
men are paid $90,000, and as for finance managers, women are paid on average $50,000
compared to their male counterpart who is paid $85,000 (Cabeza, Johnson, & Tyner, 2011).
Based on the research, it is obvious that the presence of the wage gap has a great deal to do with
society and the stereotypes that come with being a woman. It’s apparent that people’s point of
view and thought process when it comes to women in the workplace needs to be altered for the
sake of not only women, but for their families and the minorities who are affected as well.
Economic Impacts of the Wage Gap
Regardless of whether or not one believes the wage gap is a problem, there is no denying
the fact that if America were to close the gap completely, then our economy would improve
tremendously. With our economy not as strong as it could be, families and individuals need all
the help they can get – starting with diminishing the wage gap. Children in today’s day and age
Figure 5
Which of your parents work?

typically live in homes where both parents work full time jobs, not just one sole supporter. This
can been seen from the survey results, when asked about the status of their parents’ employment,
and majority of students responded with “Both my parents work” (90.2%) (See above, Figure 5).
This way of life for some families is crucial in order to remain financially stable, and it is unfair
to the family to be neglected the funds that were earned by female workers. When it comes to
economic benefits, researchers have found that the U.S. economy would increase their gross
domestic product by 2.9 percent, and produce an additional income of $447.6 billion; all if
women were paid equally (Hartman, Hayes, & Clark 2014). Having this increased income
stimulates the American economy as well as cutting the poverty rate in half. According to the
IWPR, if all working women were provided with equal pay, the poverty rate for families would
be cut from 8.1 percent to 3.9 percent, and poverty of single mothers would drop from 28.7
percent to 15 percent (Hartman, Hayes, & Clark 2014). Many people are beginning to see the
influence the wage gap could have on the economy, which can be see when the survey proposed
the question, “Do you think our economy will benefit from closing the wage gap?” and 62.7
percent of students replied with yes and only 5.9 percent responded with no as shown in the
Figure 6
Do you think our economy will benefit from closing the wage gap?

graph above. If majority of unemployed college students are perceptive enough to see the
benefits from closing the wage gap, it would behoove those in charge to speed up the process.
Whether they are single mothers or married, closing the wage gap would provide a significant
boost in their lives, the lives of their families, and ultimately the U.S. economy.
Conclusion
Although there have been laws and regulations put in place attempting to ensure equal
pay in the workplace, women of all ethnicities, ages, locations and skill sets are still being treated
less than their male counterparts, ultimately causing a negative effect on not only their own well-
being, but the American economy as well. In the coming years it is critical for women across the
country to speak up and change the societal norm. Join the conversation and add your voice. As a
result of the research from the Literature Review and Analysis, readers can come to the
conclusion that the wage gap is no myth. Women in the workplace are being viewed as less than
men - incapable of handling stressful situations, too emotional, not strong enough – and therefore
are being paid a significant amount less than their male counterparts. Women of minority groups
are under attack even more because of their background. Older, more experienced women get
paid less because of their age. All of these stereotypical comments and irrational reasons for the
wage gap are rooted in the brains of society, causing people to believe and take part in the notion
of proper gender roles and discrimination.
Overall, both the academic and field research proves that people are aware of the problem
and ready to make a change. Students at Roger Williams University recognize the issue and
believe that men and women should be paid equally. Apart from a few participants who believed
women made only 55 cents, most people were aware that women only made 78 cents compared

to a man’s dollar. Unfortunately however, when asked about how long they think it will take to
close the gap, most students responded with 20 years instead of the correct answer of 50 plus
years, which indicates either a lack of understanding when it comes to such an immense issue, or
the positive thinking that change can happen quicker than most researchers believe. When
conducting the survey, results showed that 96 percent of the students believed there is a wage
gap, however only 7 of the 50 participants could name one of the equal pay acts that have been
established throughout the years. Not all participants were completely knowledgeable, however
the results were more promising than one could have expected.
Women have overcome many obstacles throughout the years and changed history in the
process. They have established the right to vote, created Title IX, and soon will have put an end
to the wage gap. Women have always been determined to gain what is best for them, and the
wage gap is no different. Regardless of sex, age, occupation, ethnicity or what state someone
lives in, pay discrimination is unjustifiable and needs to be eradicated.
Recommendations
Knowledge is an important tool when one wants to create a movement, because when
people know about it they start to listen and ball just keeps rolling. In today’s day and age, the
most important knowledge sharing tool is social media. With the click of a button, the world can
see what everyone is doing, thinking about, and working on. One post about wage discrimination
on Facebook can be shared and viewed by millions and millions of people - that’s how people
can start a conversation. Recently in the news, actress Jennifer Lawrence spoke out against
SONY for being paid significantly less than her male co-stars in the critically acclaimed movie
American Hustle. Another example is when the U.S. Women’s Soccer Team has recently filed a
complaint with the U.S. Soccer Federation (USSF) and the Equal Employment Opportunity

Commission (EEOC) demanding equal pay (Das 2016). All of these women have accomplished
the same, if not more than their male counterparts and it is their right to demand equality. In
order to eradicate the problem, society needs to work together and spread the word. Equal pay
can be accomplished and will be accomplished by the voices who care enough to speak up. It is
important that women remember that their voice does matter, even if someone is not a famous
actress or a World Cup Champion, women across all races and ages deserve to be paid equally.
Talk to the congressmen and women, gain support for new bills that may hit the floor that can
help the cause; anything and everything helps. Soon everyone’s paycheck will not be based on
gender, age or race, but instead based on the hard work and results of each individual in the
workforce.

References
Altonji, J.G., and Comolli, R. (2006, May). The Economics of Sexual Orientation and Racial
Perception. Yale University.
http://web.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail/detail?vid=3&sid=033b0aa6-310c-43c9-89d2-
4d9dfae4e788%40sessionmgr4003&hid=4214&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3
d%3d#AN=MUI-UGSD0612-000078&db=fmh
Blau, F., and Kahn, L. (2000). The Gender Pay Gap. Stanford: Stanford University.
PDF. https://web.stanford.edu/group/scspi/_media/pdf/key_issues/gender_research.pdf
Broyles, P., & Fenner, W. (2010). Race, human capital, and wage discrimination in STEM
Professions in the United States. The International Journal of Sociology and Social
Policy, 30(5), 251-266. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/01443331011054226
Cabeza, M. F., Johnson, J. B., & Tyner, L. J. (2011). GLASS CEILING AND MATERNITY
LEAVE AS IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS TO THE GENDER WAGE
GAP. Southern Journal of Business and Ethics, 3, 73-85. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/1032548995?accountid=25133
Cohen, P. N.. & Huffman, M. L.(2004). Racial Wage Inequality: Job Segregation and
Devaluation across U.S. Labor Markets. American Journal of Sociology, 109(4), 902–
936. http://doi.org/10.1086/378928
Cohen, P. N., & Huffman, M. L. (2007). Working for the woman? Female managers and the

Gender wage gap. American Sociological Review, 72(5), 681-704. Retrieved from
Cooper, M.A.. (2014, Jan.). “Wage Gap for Women: Both Sides of the Story”. Hispanic
Outlook in Higher Education, Vol. 24 Issue 7.
http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/93742130/wage-gap-women-both-sides-story
Das, A. (2016, Mar 31). "Top Female Players Accuse U.S. Soccer of Wage
Discrimination." The New York Times. The New York Times, 31 Mar. 2016. Web.
http://www.nytimes.com/2016/04/01/sports/soccer/uswnt-us-women-carli-lloyd-alex-
morgan-hope-solo-complain.html.
Domonoske, C. (Jan. 2016). "To Shine A Light On Salary Gaps, Obama Wants Companies
To Disclose Pay Data." NPR. NPR, 29 Jan. 2016. Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/01/29/464856100/to-shine-a-light-on-
salary-gaps-obama-wants-companies-to-disclose-pay-data
Ellis, E. and Hegewisch, A. The Gender Wage Gap by Occupation and Race and
Ethnicity. Washington D.C.: The Institute for Women’s Policy Research, (Apr. 2015).
PDF. http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-gender-wage-gap-by-occupation-2014-
and-by-race-and-ethnicity
Equal Pay and the Wage Gap Archives - NWLC." (2016). NWLC. Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
http://nwlc.org/issue/equal-pay-and-the-wage-gap/
Hartmann, H., Ph.D., Hayes, J., Ph.D., & Clark, J. (Feb 2016) The Economic
Impact of Equal Pay By State. Washington D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research.
PDF. http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-economic-impact-of-equal-pay-by-state
Hartmann, H., Ph.D., Hayes, J., Ph.D., & Clark, J. (Jan. 2014). How Equal

Pay for Working Women Would Reduce Poverty and Grow the American Economy.
Washington D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research. PDF.
http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/how-equal-pay-for-working-women-would-
reduce-poverty-and-grow-the-american-economy
Heathcote, J., Storesletten, K., & Violante, G. L.. (2010). The Macroeconomic Implications of
Rising Wage Inequality in the United States. Journal of Political Economy, 118(4), 681–
722. http://doi.org/10.1086/656632
Hill, C. (Spring 2016). "The Simple Truth about the Gender Pay Gap (Spring 2016)."
AAUW: Empowering Women Since 1881. AAUW, 2016. Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
http://www.aauw.org/research/the-simple-truth-about-the-gender-pay-gap/
Kerby, S. (9 Apr. 2013). "How Pay Inequity Hurts Women of Color." Center For
American Progress. Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/labor/report/2013/04/09/59731/how-pay-
inequity-hurts-women-of-color/
Miller, C. (2016, Jan 17). “What we can do to close the pay gap”. New York
Times Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1757495546?accountid=25133
"Remarks of President Barack Obama on the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act Bill
Signing." (Jan. 2009). The White House. FPRA. The White House. Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-barack-obama-lilly-
ledbetter-fair-pay-restoration-act-bill-signin
Shelton, E. (1970, May 14). $17 million owed women under equal pay act. Boston Globe
(1960-1984) Retrieved from

Schow, A. (Jan. 2016). "Harvard Prof. Takes down Gender Wage Gap Myth." Washington
Examiner. Washington Examiner, 13 Jan. 2016. Web. 20 Mar. 2016.
http://www.washingtonexaminer.com/harvard-prof.-takes-down-gender-wage-gap-
myth/article/2580405
"The Equal Pay Act of 1963." (EPA). Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/epa.cfm

Appendix
Focused Research Questions…………………………………………………………32
Working Bibliography……………………………………………………………….33
Annotated Bibliography…………………………………………………………......38
Survey Questions……………………………………………………………………49
Survey Results………………………………………………………………………52
Additional Graphs…………………………………………………………………..56

Focused Research Questions
1. How does race affect the wage gap?
2. Which race is affected the most? The least?
3. Is the gap larger or smaller depending on the occupation?
4. Which occupations have the largest and smallest wage gaps?
5. How does age affect the wage gap?
6. Is the wage gap different in cities compared to less populated areas?
7. How are women viewed in the workforce?
8. Why does the wage gap exist? What is society’s role in this issue?
9. How can the wage gap be closed? Why hasn’t it been closed already?
10. What sort of laws are currently in place?
11. How does someone find out they are subject to pay discrimination?
12. What are we currently doing about it? Will we be effective?
13. How does the glass ceiling play a role in the wage gap?
14. How much do people know about the wage gap?

Working Bibliography
Bianchi-Sand, S. (1993, Jun 08). Equal pay act suffers scrutiny at 30th anniversary. Journal
Record. Retrieved http://search.proquest.com/docview/259292423?accountid=25133
Billitteri, T. J. (2008, March 14). Gender pay gap. CQ Researcher, 18, 241-264. Retrieved from
http://library.cqpress.com/
Barkacs, L. L., & Barkacs, C. B. (2009). THE TIME IS RIGHT - OR IS IT? THE SUPREME
COURT SPEAKS IN LEDBETTER V. GOODYEAR TIRE & RUBBER CO. Journal of
Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues, 12(1), 121-127. Retrieved from
Bussey, J. (2014, Oct 11). Corporate news -- the business: Gender wage gap reflects 'ask'
gap. Wall Street Journal. Retrieved from
Cabeza, M. F., Johnson, J. B., & Tyner, L. J. (2011). GLASS CEILING AND MATERNITY
LEAVE AS IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS TO THE GENDER WAGE
GAP. Southern Journal of Business and Ethics, 3, 73-85. Retrieved from

Claire, C. M. (2016, Jan 17). What we can do to close the pay gap. New York Times. Retrieved
from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1757495546?accountid=25133
Cohen, P. N.. & Huffman, M. L.(2004). Racial Wage Inequality: Job Segregation and
Devaluation across U.S. Labor Markets. American Journal of Sociology, 109(4), 902–
936. http://doi.org/10.1086/378928
Cronin, B. (2013, Sep 18). U.S. news: Women's wage gap stays stuck in place. Wall Street
Journal Retrieved from
Dishman, L. (2015). What The Gender Pay Gap Looks Like By Industry. Fast Company.
Retrieved from http://www.fastcompany.com/3053226/strong-female-lead/what-the-
gender-pay-gap-looks-like-by-industry
Drago, R. (2010, Sep 16). Wage gap stagnant overall, women not doing better. Business
Wire. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/751023273?accountid=25133
Equal Pay and the Wage Gap Archives - NWLC." (2016). NWLC. Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
It's Time for Equal Pay Now. (n.d.). The Department of Labor. Retrieved February 17, 2016,
from http://www.dol.gov/featured/equalpay
Johansen, V. (2016). Gender and self-employment: The role of mini-companies. Education &

Training, 58(2), 150-163. Retrieved from
Jost, K. (2011, May 13). Class action lawsuits. CQ Researcher, 21, 433-456. Retrieved from
http://library.cqpress.com
Kerby, S. (9 Apr. 2013). "How Pay Inequity Hurts Women of Color." Center For
American Progress. Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
Kleinjans, K.J. (2009). Do gender differences in preferences for competition matter for
occupational expectations?. Journal of Economic Psychology, 30(5), 701-710. Institute
for Women’s Policy Research (2000). Retrieved from
http://www.iwpr.org/initiatives/pay-equity-and-discrimination.
Lecture discusses social issues, wage gap upon women in the work force. (2014, May
14). University Wire. Retrieved from
Leonhardt, D., & Cox, A. (2015, Jan 06). The distinct geography of female employment. New
York Times. Retrieved from
Shaffer, H. B. (1957). Woman's place in the economy. CQ Researcher Editorial research reports

1957 (Vol. I). Washington, DC: CQ Press.
http://library.cqpress.com/cqresearcher/document.php?id=cqresrre1957021300&action=a
ddfav&time=1454351488374&
Shelton, E. (1970, May 14). $17 million owed women under equal pay act. Boston Globe (1960-
1984) Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/375460303?accountid=25133
Sherman, E. (2015, March 02). These 20 jobs have the biggest gender pay gaps. Fortune 500.
Retrieved February 17, 2016, from http://fortune.com/2015/03/02/jobs-biggest-gender-
pay-gaps/
Smith, H. L. (1992). The politics of Conservative reform: The equal pay for equal work issue,
1945–1955. Hist. J. The Historical Journal, 35(02), 401. Retrieved from
https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/equal_pay_issue_brief_final.pdf.
Special to THE NEW,YORK TIMES. (1933, Feb 06). WOMEN DENOUNCE ECONOMY
PAY ACT. New York Times (1923-Current File) Retrieved from http://0-
search.proquest.com.helin.uri.edu/docview/100584450?accountid=25133
Tuttle, R., & Garr, M. (2009). Self-employment, work-family fit and mental health among
female workers. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 30(3), 282-292.
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10834-009-9154-y
Understand the Basics. (n.d.). The White House. Retrieved February 17, 2016, from Retrieved
from http://now.org/about/
Wage gap widens for women. (2013, Mar 07). PR Newswire, The Institute for Women’s Policy

Research. Retrieved from
Women's Earnings and Income. (2012). Retrieved February 17, 2016, from
http://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/womens-earnings-and-income

Annotated Bibliography
On the website, the American Association University of Women (AAUW), the authors
argue that there is a significant wage gap between men and women. The website supports
its claim by being a top rated and accredited charity dedicated to women’s rights, and by
thoroughly researching the gap in different states as well as between different ethnicities.
The websites goal is to bring awareness to the wage gap issue. This website is created for
anyone interested in the wage gap.
Barkacs, C., Barkacs, L. (28 Feb. 2016). “The Time is Right – Or Is It?” The Journal of
Legal, Ethical and Regulatory Issues. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/216247196/307D498E9E3E4114PQ/3?accountid=25
133
In the academic article, “The Time is Right – Or Is It?” authors Linda Barkacs and Craig
Barkacs discuss the Lily Ledbetter court case and the issues of the wage gap. The authors
support their article by referencing the court case as well as looking into Title IX and
other related court cases. The authors’ goal is to share the details of major court case as
well as discuss other cases that affect the wage gap. This article is written primarily for
public knowledge on the Lily Ledbetter case.

Billitteri, T. J. (2008, March 14). Gender pay gap. CQ Researcher, 18, 241-264. Retrieved
from http://library.cqpress.com/
In the report, “Gender Pay Gap” author Thomas Billitteri discusses the facts about the
wage gap and how the issue is slowly changing. The author supports his claim by
researching the issue and his previous experience writing about businesses and nonprofit
institutions. The author’s goal is to deliver the facts on the wage gap. This article was
written for people looking to research the wage gap.
Blau, F., and Kahn, L. (n.d.). The Gender Pay Gap. Stanford: Stanford University.
PDF.https://web.stanford.edu/group/scspi/_media/pdf/key_issues/gender_research.pdf
In the academic article, “The Gender Pay Gap”, authors Francine Blau and Lawrence
Kahn discuss the trends of the wage gap as well as the economic explanations for the
wage gap. The authors support their claim by conducting research through Stanford
University with over 40 sources from various articles and reviews. The author’s goal is to
give people access to the information regarding the wage gap. The article was written for
those who are looking into the impact the gap has on our economy as well as the overall
trends that are occurring.
Cabeza, M. F., Johnson, J. B., & Tyner, L. J. (2011). Glass ceiling and maternity leave as
important contributors to the gender wage gap. Southern Journal of Business and
Ethics, 3, 73-85. Retrieved from

In the academic article, “Glass Ceiling and Maternity Leave as Important Contributors to
the Gender Wage Gap”, authors M.F. Cabeza, J.B. Johnson, and L.J. Tyner discuss the
reasons for the wage gap, focusing on maternity leave and the glass ceiling. The authors
support their claim by conducting research within the business world. The authors’ goal
is to explain the reasoning behind the wage gap. This article was written for people who
are researching the wage gap and how it started.
Cohen, P. N., & Huffman, M. L. (2007). Working for the woman? Female managers and the
Gender wage gap. American Sociological Review, 72(5), 681-704. Retrieved from
In the academic article, “Working for the Woman?” authors Phillip Cohen and Matt
Huffman discuss the wage gap between female and male managers and that the glass
ceiling is the main reason. The authors support their claims by researching women in
management positions throughout the U.S. The authors’ goal is to divulge the inequality
seen between female managers and male managers. This article was written for the
general public.

In the dissertation, “The Economics of Sexual Orientation and Racial Perception”
author’s Renzo Comolli and Joseph Altonji argues that the two characteristics that affect
earnings are sexual orientation and race. The authors support their claims by conducting
research through Yale University. The authors’ goal is to discuss in depth the two reasons
for wage discrimination and explain the social and economic impacts. This paper was
written primarily for professionals and scholars.
Cooper, M.A. (2014, Jan.). “Wage Gap for Women: Both Sides of the Story”. Hispanic
Outlook in Higher Education, Vol. 24 Issue 7.
http://connection.ebscohost.com/c/articles/93742130/wage-gap-women-both-sides-story
In the article, “Wage Gap for Women: Both Sides of the Story” author Mary Ann Cooper
argues that the wage gap issue is disregarding some important points when it comes to
wages. The author supports her claims by in depth research and the article was written for
an elite organization, The Hispanic Outlook to Higher Education. The author’s goal is to
discuss the other factors that could affect your salary such as more experience or
educational background. This article was written for the general public.
Domonoske, C. (Jan 2016). "To Shine A Light On Salary Gaps, Obama Wants Companies
To Disclose Pay Data." NPR. NPR, 29 Jan. 2016. Web. Retrieved from
http://www.npr.org/sections/thetwo-way/2016/01/29/464856100/to-shine-a-light-on-
salary-gaps-obama-wants-companies-to-disclose-pay-data
In the article, “Wage Gap for Women: Both Sides of the Story” author Mary Ann Cooper
argues that the wage gap issue is disregarding some important points when it comes to

wages. The author supports her claims by in depth research and the article was written for
an elite organization, The Hispanic Outlook to Higher Education. The author’s goal is to
discuss the other factors that could affect your salary such as more experience or
educational background. This article was written for the general public.
“Equal Pay and the Wage Gap Archives - NWLC." NWLC. Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
On the website, National Women’s Law Center, the authors claim that the wage gap has a
highly negative effect on families and the economy as a whole. This website supports its
claim from being a strong advocate for women’s rights since 1972. This
website/company’s goal is to support women and their rights to an equal pay, and gain
support for a wage gap bill they plan to propose. This website is created for anyone
interested in supporting the wage gap.
"FACT SHEET: New Steps to Advance Equal Pay on the Seventh Anniversary of the Lilly
Ledbetter Fair Pay Act." (29 Jan. 2016). The White House. The White House. Web.
28 Feb. 2016. https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/01/29/fact-sheet-
new-steps-advance-equal-pay-seventh-anniversary-lilly
The press release “New Steps to Advance Equal Pay” released by the White House on
January 29, 2016, discusses the new additions to the Fair Pay Act of 2009 and that the
wage gap is still very real. The goal of this release is to gain support to create a new act
that forces major companies with more than 100 employees to release salary information.
This was created for the general public.

Glazer, S. (2006, April 14). Future of feminism. CQ Researcher, 16, 313-336. Retrieved
In the article, “The Future of Feminism” author Sarah Glazer discusses the new age of
feminism and that the women of today are starting to really fight once again for the rights
and equality they deserve. The author supports her claim by conducting intense research
through many accredited sources. The author’s goal is to discuss the various feminist
movements and the overall inequality women see compared to men. The article was
written primarily for the public interested in feminist topics.
Hartmann, H., Ph.D., Hayes, J., Ph.D., & Clark, J. (Jan. 2014). How Equal
Pay for Working Women Would Reduce Poverty and Grow the American Economy.
Washington D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research. Retrieved from.
http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/how-equal-pay-for-working-women-would-
reduce-poverty-and-grow-the-american-economy
In the digital file, “How Equal Pay for Working Women would Reduce Poverty and
Grow the American Economy” created by Heidi Hartmann, Ph.D., Jeffrey Hayes, Ph.D.,
and Jennifer Clark, for The Institute for Women’s Policy Research claims that if the wage
gap was closed, it would significantly impact the American Economy for the better. The
authors support their claim by conducting intense research and works with the women’s
studies, public policy and public administration programs at The George Washington
University. The author’s goal is to show the possibilities that could arise from eliminating

the wage gap. The file was created for those who want to learn more about the wage gap
and the importance of eliminating it.
Hartmann, H., Ph.D., Hayes, J., Ph.D., & Clark, J. (Feb 2016) The Economic
Impact of Equal Pay By State. Washington D.C.: Institute for Women's Policy Research.
Retrieved from http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-economic-impact-of-equal-
pay-by-state
In the digital file, “The Economic Impact of Equal Pay By State” authors Heidi
Hartmann, Ph.D., Jeffrey Hayes, Ph.D., and Jennifer Clark from The Institute for
Women’s Policy Research claims that the wage gap has a strong economic impact, but
varies from state to state. The author supports her claim by having access to a national
report that presents data from each state regarding the wage gap issue. The author’s goal
is to show the economic implications the wage gap has on people across the country. This
file was created for those conducting research on the economic impact of the wage gap.
Ellis, E. and Hegewisch, A. The Gender Wage Gap by Occupation and Race and
Ethnicity. Washington D.C.: The Institute for Women’s Policy Research, (Apr. 2015).
PDF. http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-gender-wage-gap-by-occupation-2014-
and-by-race-and-ethnicity
In the digital file, “The Gender Wage Gap by Occupation and by Race and Ethnicity”
created by Ariane Hegewisch and Emily Ellis for The Institute for Women’s Policy
Research claims that the wage gap varies amongst occupation as well as between
ethnicities. The authors support their claim by conducting intense research and works

with the women’s studies, public policy and public administration programs at The
George Washington University. The author’s goal is to show the gap between men and
women and between men and women of various ethnicities. The file was created for
those who want to learn more about the wage gap, specifically the wage gap in minority
groups.
Jost, K. (2011, May 13). Class action lawsuits. CQ Researcher, 21, 433-456. Retrieved
In the article “Class Action Lawsuits – Will the Supreme Court approve the Wal-Mart
case?” author Kenneth Jost discusses the wage gap of Wal-Mart employees and how the
1.5 million former or current workers would like to sue the retailer based on sex-
discrimination. The author supports his claim by heavily researching Wal-Mart as well as
actively following the case. The author’s goal is to show readers how wide spread the
wage gap is, touching the big wigs in Manhattan as well as the cashiers at your local
stores. This article was written for the general public and anyone who wishes to learn
more about the lawsuit.
Kerby, S. (9 Apr. 2013). "How Pay Inequity Hurts Women of Color." Center For American
Progress. Retrieved 28 Feb. 2016.
In the article, “How Pay Inequality Hurts Women of Color”, author Sophia Kerby argues
that the wage gap is a major issue, however, the issue of the wage gap when specifically

looking at women of color is much wider. The author supports her claim by discussing
the implications the wage gap has on immigrant women, lesbian women, and women of
different ethnicities; black and Latina specifically. The author’s goal is to bring to light
the issue of discrimination within the wage gap issue. This article is meant for those
seeking information on the wage gap.
Miller, C. (2016, Jan 17). What we can do to close the pay gap. New York
Times. Retrieved from
In the article “What We Can Do to Close the Pay Gap”, author Claire Miller for The New
York Times discusses the wage gap and how the issue can be fixed by publishing
everyone’s salaries. The author supports her claim due to research on the wage gap and
discussing the idea with many important and prominent companies. Her goal is to start
discussion on a possible solution to the wage gap. This article was written for the general
public interested in closing the wage gap.
"Pay Equity & Discrimination." (Feb 2016). Institute for Women’s Policy Research. IWPR.
Retrieved Web. 28 Feb. 2016. http://www.iwpr.org/initiatives/pay-equity-and-
discrimination
On the website, Institute for Women’s Policy Research (IWPR), authors discuss the
impact of the wage gap, amongst men and women and that the wage gap is different
amongst women of color and by state. The website supports their claim by conducting
intense research and works with the women’s studies, public policy and public

administration programs at The George Washington University. The author’s goal is to
inform the public about the wage gap and provide people the opportunity to get involved.
The website was created for the public and those wishing to learn more about the issue.
"Remarks of President Barack Obama on the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration Act Bill
Signing." (Jan. 2009). The White House. FPRA. The White House. Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-barack-obama-lilly-
ledbetter-fair-pay-restoration-act-bill-signin
In the article “Remarks of President Obama on the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Restoration
Act Bill Signing”, President Obama explains the new bill to the press. The Lily Ledbetter
Fair Pay Act of 2009 adds that the discrimination in the work place based on sex, race,
color, religion or national origin is illegal and the employee has a 180 days after each
paycheck to file an equal pay lawsuit. The goal of this article is to convey President
Obama’s thoughts on the Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act. The article was created for the
general public who are interested in the policies behind the wage gap issue.
Shelton, E. (1970, May 14). $17 million owed women under equal pay act. Boston Globe
(1960-1984) Retrieved from
In the article, “$17 million owed women under Equal Pay Act” journalist Elizabeth
Shelton discusses the how with the passing of the Equal Pay Act, the Labor Department
owed women workers a total of $17 million in back pay. This author supports her claim
by researching the act as well as keeping up to date with the court cases. The authors’

goal is to share the (then) current news regarding the Equal Pay Act. This article was
written for the general public in The Boston Globe.
"The Equal Pay Act of 1963." (EPA). Retrieved from Web. 28 Feb. 2016.
http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/epa.cfm
In “The Equal Pay Act of 1963”, the U.S. government states that sexual discrimination in
the workplace is illegal. The bill is an official government document and it can be found
on the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission website. This bill was written
for the purpose of being presented to congressmen and women in Washington D.C. in
1963, with the hopes of being passed.

Survey Questions
1. Please choose one
a. Male
b. Female
a. Freshman
b. Sophomore
c. Junior
d. Senior
3. Please enter your age
________
4. Which of your parents work?
a. My mother works
b. My father works
c. Both my parents work
d. Neither of my parents work
5. Do you believe there is a wage gap between men and women?
a. Yes
b. No
6. Do you have any knowledge of the wage gap?
a. Yes
b. No

7. Are you aware of any laws in play that might help alleviate pay discrimination? If so,
please name them.
_____________________________________
8. For every dollar a man makes, how much do you think a woman makes?
a. .55
b. .94
c. .78
d. Equal
9. In your opinion, what is the main reason the wage gap exists?
a. White-Male Supremacy
b. Maternity leave
c. The wage gap doesn’t exist
d. Women don’t speak up
e. Society’s gender roles
10. Please list, in order from highest paid person to lowest paid person, the following: Asian
women, Black women, Latino women, White women, White men.
1. White Men
2. Asian Women
3. White Women
4. Black Women
5. Latino Women
11. Do you believe men and women should be paid equally?
a. Yes

b. No
12. Would you be willing to release your salary information in the future in order for men
and women to have equal pay?
a. Yes
b. No
13. Do you think our economy will benefit from closing the wage gap?
a. Yes
b. No
c. I don’t know
14. How long do you think it will take to close the wage gap?
a. 5 years
b. 20 years
c. 40 years
d. 50+ years
e. I don’t believe there is a wage gap
15. Have you even been discouraged to speak about your pay with a friend or a coworker?
a. Yes
b. No
16. Have you, or anyone you know, been affected by pay discrimination?
a. Yes
b. No

Survey Results
a. Male (11)
b. Female (39)
a. Freshman (4)
b. Sophomore (31)
c. Junior (9)
d. Senior (6)
3. Please enter your age
18 year olds (2)
19 year olds (17)
20 year olds (20)
21 year olds (8)
22 year olds (3)
4. Which of your parents work?
a. My mother works (3)
b. My father works (2)
c. Both my parents work (45)
d. Neither of my parents work (0)
5. Do you believe there is a wage gap between men and women?
a. Yes (48)

b. No (2)
6. Do you have any knowledge of the wage gap?
a. Yes (41)
b. No (9)
7. Are you aware of any laws in play that might help alleviate pay discrimination? If so,
please name them.
Equal Pay Act of 1963 (5)
Lily Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009 (4)
Additional responses: No, I don’t know, Title IX, Maternity Leave, Paycheck
Fairness Act, and the 16th
Amendment
8. For every dollar a man makes, how much do you think a woman makes?
a. .55 (5)
b. .94 (2)
c. .78 (41)
d. Equal (2)
9. In your opinion, what is the main reason the wage gap exists?
a. White-Male Supremacy (9)
b. Maternity leave (1)
c. The wage gap doesn’t exist (1)
d. Women don’t speak up (4)
e. Society’s gender roles (35)
10. Please list, in order from highest paid person to lowest paid person, the following: Asian
women, Black women, Latino women, White women, White men.

Correct Answer: Most Common Answer:
1. White Men White Men
2. Asian Women White Women
3. White Women Asian Women
4. Black Women Black Women
5. Latino Women Latino Women
11. Do you believe men and women should be paid equally?
a. Yes (48)
b. No (2)
12. Would you be willing to release your salary information in the future in order for men
and women to have equal pay?
a. Yes (40)
b. No (10)
13. Do you think our economy will benefit from closing the wage gap?
a. Yes (31)
b. No (3)
c. I don’t know (16)
14. How long do you think it will take to close the wage gap?
a. 5 years (10)
b. 20 years (30)
c. 40 years (5)
d. 50+ years (4)
e. I don’t believe there is a wage gap (1)

15. Have you even been discouraged to speak about your pay with a friend or a coworker?
a. Yes (34)
b. No (16)
16. Have you, or anyone you know, been affected by pay discrimination?
a. Yes (26)
b. No (24)

Additional Graphs
Figure 7
Do you believe there is a wage gap between men and women?
Figure 8
Do you have any knowledge of the wage gap?

Figure 9
Do you believe men and women should be paid equally?
Figure 10
Would you be willing to release your salary information in the future in order for men and
women to have equal pay?

Figure 11
For every dollar a man makes, how much do you think a woman makes?

Women and the Wage Gap

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (18)

Women and the Wage Gap