Adverse Drug Reactions and Drug Allergy Adverse Drug Reactions and Drug Allergy - Presentation Transcript
ADVERSE DRUG REACTIONS (ADRs) AND DRUG ALLERGY Achara Srisodsai, Ph.D. Department of Toxicology Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences Khon Kaen University
THE FIRST APPEARANCE OF THALIDOMIDE 'Thalidomide Babies'
First appeared in Germany on 1st October 1957 .
As a sedative with apparently remarkably few side effects.
Prescribing to pregnant women to help combat morning sickness .
The tests were conducted on rodents which metabolise the drug in a different way to humans .
Later tests on rabbits and monkeys produced the same horrific side effects as in humans .
Thalidomide
Towards the end of the fifties, children began to be born with shocking disabilities.
Probably the most renowned is Phocomelia , the name given to the flipper-like limbs which appeared on the children of women who took thalidomide.
Babies effected by this tragedy were given the name 'Thalidomide Babies' .
Why drugs can cause tragedy?
Compound Success Rates By Stages 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Years Discovery (2-10 Years) Preclinical Testing Laboratory and animal testing Phase I 20-80 healthy volunteers used to determine safety and dosage Phase II 100-300 patient volunteers to look for efficacy and side effects Phase III 1,000-5,000 patient volunteers used to monitor adverse reactions to long-term use FDA Review/Approval Additional post-marketing testing Compound Success Rates by Stage 5,000-10,000 screened 250 Enter preclinical testing 5 Enter clinical testing 1 Approved by the FDA Postmarketing survillence
Limitations of premarketing clinical trials
Short duration — effects that develop with chronic use or
those that have a long latency period are impossible to
detect.
Narrow population — generally do not include special groups (e.g., children, elderly), to a large degree, and are not always representative of the population that may be exposed to the drug after approval.
Adverse Reaction Drug Time Lag (yr) Pulmonary embolism Oral contraceptives 3 Myocardial infarction Oral contraceptives 5 Deaths from asthma Sympathomimetic aerosols 4 Jaundice Halothane 7 Colitis Lincomycin 6 Colitis Clindamycin 5 Aplastic anemia Phenylbutazone 6 Venning, GR. Br. Med. J. 286:365-368, 1983 Summary of time lags after U.S. marketing before adverse drug reactions were widely recognized
Narrow set of indications — those for which efficacy is being studied and do not cover actual evolving use.
Small size (generally include 3,000 to 4,000 subjects) — effects that occur rarely are very difficult to detect.
Limitations of premarketing clinical trials
Required sample size for detecting a rare adverse drug reaction Number of patients to be observed to detect Incidence of ADR 1, 2 or 3 cases of ADR 1 2 3 1 in 100 300 480 650 1 in 200 600 960 1,300 1 in 1,000 3,000 4,800 6,500 1 in 2,000 6,000 9,600 13,000 1 in 10,000 30,000 48,000 65,000
ADVERSE DRUG REACTIONS (ADRs)
WHO: Any response to a drug which is noxious and unintended , and which occurs at doses normally used in man for prophylaxis , diagnosis , or therapy of disease, or for the modification of physiological functions. What is ADR?
Excluding……….
Therapeutic failures
Intentional and accidental overdose
Drug abuse
Errors in drug administration
Adverse Drug Events (ADEs) - เหตุการณ์ หรือผลการรักษาที่เลวลงหลังการใช้ยา Risk assessment of drug
3. Type C (chronic) - เกิดขึ้นภายหลังจากการใช้ยาติดต่อกันเป็นระยะเวลายาวนาน แต่สามารถคาดการณ์ล่วงหน้าได้ เช่น อาการติดยากลุ่ม Benzodiazepines 4. Type D (delayed) - เป็นการเกิดอันตรายจากการใช้ยาแบบมีระยะแฝงนาน เช่น การก่อมะเร็ง หรือ การก่อความพิการต่อทารกในครรภ์ 5. Type E (end-of-treatment) - อาการเกิดภายหลังการหยุดใช้ยา (withdrawal) อย่างกะทันหัน
Type A (augmented/predictable) reactions
Expected extensions of an individual drug’s known
pharmacologic properties and are responsible for the
bulk of ADEs encountered.
Even though their incidence and morbidity is high,
they are rarely life-threatening , although they can
produce significant disability.
Causes of Type A reactions 1. Pharmaceutical causes - Drug quantity - Drug release e.g. Osmosin ® (slow release indomethacin) GI bleeding 2. Pharmacokinetic causes - Drug absorption - Drug elimination - Drug distribution - Drug metabolism 3. Pharmacodynamic causes - Drug receptors - Homeostatic mechanisms - Disease
Factors predisposing to pharmacological adverse drug reactions Factor Example Toxicity Mechanism Pharmaceutical Osmosin Gastrointestinal Release of high (slow release bleeding concentrations of indomethacin) active drug locally in GI Pharmacokinetic* Digoxin Digoxin toxicity Decreased elimination (nausea, arrhythmias) if renal function is impaired Pharmacodynamic Indomethacin Left ventricular Water and sodium failure retention Drug-drug Terfenadine TM Prolonged QT Inhibition of interaction* Erythromycin interval and metabolism of torsades de terfenadine by pointes erythromycin *Can affect absorption, distribution, metabolism, or excretion.
Ways to minimize both pharmacokinetically- and
pharmacodynamically-derived ADEs include
Understanding the pharmacology of the drug
being prescribed
Monitoring drugs with a narrow therapeutic
window
Avoiding polypharmacy whenever possible
Type B (bizarre/unpredictable) reactions
Type B reactions include idiosyncratic reactions,
immunologic or allergic reactions (e.g.anaphylaxis),
and carcinogenic/teratogenic events.
While uncommon, are often among the most
serious and potentially life-threatening of all
ADEs, and are a major cause of important
drug-induced disease.
Receptor abnormality —malignant
hyperthermia with general anesthetics
Mechanisms of Type B reaction
Autosomal dominant genetic disorder of SM
Mutation in the gene loci corresponding to
skeletal muscle ryanodine receptor (RYR1),
the calcium release channel of sarcoplasmic
reticulum.
Tachycardia, HT, severe muscle rigidity,
hyperthermia
Abnormal biological system unmasked by
drug —primaquine induced haemolysis in
patients deficient in glucose 6-phosphate
dehydrogenase
Genetic heterogeneity among affected individuals with
over 400 variants of the enzyme identified.
- The severity of the problem can vary from hemolysis even in the
absence of oxidative stress to hemolysis only on exposure
to mild to marked oxidant stress.
Abnormalities in drug metabolism
- Atypical pseudocholinesterase
ในผู้ป่วยที่ใช้ succinylcholine เกิดภาวะ prolong apnea เพราะ cholinesterase ทำงานแบบผิดปกติจึงไม่สามารถกำจัดยาออกได้ตามอัตราเร็วของคนปกติได้ Atypical ChE มี affinity ต่อ substrate ต่ำทำให้ half life นาน
- Polymorphism drug oxidation
เช่น CYP2D6 polymorphism (debrisoquine/sparteine)
CYP2C19 polymorphism (Mephenyltoin)
ตารางเปรียบเทียบ Type A และ Type B ADRs Type A Type B 1. Predictability 2. Dose-dependent 3. Incident 4. Mortality 5. Treatment 6. Pharmacological basis 7. Seriousness Yes No Yes No Common Rare No Yes Adjust dose No Yes No No Yes
Summary points
Adverse drug reactions are a common clinical problem
They are diagnosed on clinical grounds from the temporal
relation between the start and finish of drug treatment
and the onset and offset of the reaction
Pharmacological adverse reactions are generally
dose-dependent , related to the pharmacokinetic properties
of the drug, and resolve when the dose is reduced
Idiosyncratic adverse reactions are not related to the
known pharmacology of the drug , do not show any
simple dose-response relation , and resolve only when
treatment is discontinued
Vigilance by clinicians in detecting, diagnosing, and
reporting adverse reactions is important for continued
drug safety monitoring
อาการไม่พึงประสงค์ที่เกิดจากการที่ยาไปกระตุ้นระบบภูมิคุ้มกันของผู้ป่วยทำให้เพิ่มการสร้างสาร antibody มากขึ้น หรือเกิดจากการที่เซลล์เม็ดเลือดขาวมีความไวต่อการตอบสนองของยามากขึ้น Drug allergy
Type I — Anaphylactic/ Immediate type (e.g., Penicillin, insulin urticaria or anaphylaxis) Type II — Cytotoxic type (e.g., drug-induced haemolytic anaemia or thrombocytopenia [reduced platelets]) Type III — Immune complex type (e.g., serum sickness-like drug reactions) Type IV — Cell-mediated or delayed hypersensitivity (e.g., neomycin contact dermatitis) กลไกของการแพ้ยา
เกิดขึ้นรวดเร็ว และรุนแรง
กลไกการเกิดจากยาทำหน้าที่เป็น Ag เข้าทำปฏิกิริยากับ IgE ที่อยู่บนผิวนอกของ mast cells และ basophils
Type II: Cytolytic Reactions The Fab of IgG reacts with epitopes on the host cell membrane. Phagocytes bind to the Fc portion. Phagocytes binding to the Fc portion of the IgG and discharge their lysosomes causing cell lysis.
Type III: Immune Complex Reactions
ยาจะทำปฏิกิริยากับ I gG ได้เป็นสารประกอบเชิงซ้อน immune complexes
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