Methods For Teaching English

LINGUIS TICS FINAL PA PER By María del Refugio Garza Landeros

Introduction

Along the years, many different teaching methods have been developed whether to face students needs or to match the requirements of a new administration, all of them claiming to be the best option to teach English. Let’s remember some of them. . .

Review on teaching methods

Total Physical Response (TPR).

The Silent Way.

Community Language Learning.

Suggestopedia.

Whole Language.

Multiple Intelligences.

Neurolinguistic Programming.

The Lexical Approach.

Competency-Based Language Teaching.

Total Physical Response (TPR)

Developed by James Asher, TPR is a language learning method based on the coordination of speech and action. It is linked to the trace theory of memory, which holds that the more often or intensively a memory connection is traced, the stronger the memory will be. There are six principles Asher elaborates:

Second language learning is parallel to first language learning and should reflect the same naturalistic processes

Listening should develop before speaking

Children respond physically to spoken language, and adult learners learn better if they do that too

Once listening comprehension has been developed, speech develops naturally and effortlessly out of it.

Adults should use right-brain motor activities, while the left hemisphere watches and learns

Delaying speech reduces stress.

Some of the objectives of Total Physical Response are:

Teaching oral proficiency at a beginning level

Using comprehension as a means to speaking

Using action-based drills in the imperative form

TPR uses a sentence-based grammatical syllabus.

TPR main learning techniques and activities are based on situations where a command is given in the imperative and the students obey the command.

The Silent Way

Caleb Gattegno founded "The Silent Way" as a method for language learning in the early 70s, sharing many of the same essential principles as the cognitive code and making good use of the theories underlying Discovery Learning.

Some of his basic theories were:

"teaching should be subordinated to learning" and

"the teacher works with the student; the student works on the language".

The most prominent characteristic of the method was that the teacher typically stayed "silent" most

of the time, as part of his/her role as facilitator and stimulator, and thus the method's popular

name.

Language learning is usually seen as a problem solving activity to be engaged in by the students both

independently and as a group, and the teacher needs to stay "out of the way" in the process as much

as possible.

The Silent Way is also well-known for its common use of small colored rods of varying length

( Cuisinere rods ) and color-coded word charts depicting pronunciation values, vocabulary and

grammatical paradigms.

Typical Techniques

(1) Sound-Color Chart - ( Trefers students to a color-coded wall chart depicting individual sounds in the

target language - students use this to point out and build words with correct pronunciation)

(2) Teacher's Silence (T is generally silent, only giving help when it is absolutely necessary)

(3) Peer Correction (Ss are encouraged to help each other in a cooperative and not competitive spirit)

Rods ( are used to trigger meaning, and to introduce or actively practice language. They can even be manipulated directly or abstractly to create sentences)

(5) Self-correction Gestures (T uses hands to indicate that something is incorrect or needs changing)

(6) Word Chart ( the sounds in each word corresponding in color to the Sound-Color Chart described above - students use this to build sentences)

(7) Fidel Chart (A chart that is color-coded according to the sound-color chart but includes the various English spellings so that they can be directly related to actual sounds)

(8) Structured Feedback (Students are invited to make observations about the day's lesson and what they have learned)

It is a unique method and the first of its kind to really concentrate on cognitive principles in language learning.

Community Language Learning

In the early seventies, Charles Curran developed a new education model he called "Counseling-Learning". This was essentially an example of an innovative model that primarily considered "affective" factors as paramount in the learning process. Learners were to be considered not as a "class", but as a "group", Curran's philosophy dictated that students were to be thought of as "clients" - their needs being addressed by a "counselor" in the form of the teacher.

The CLL method Principles:

To encourage the students to take increasingly more responsibility for their own learning, and to "learn about their learning", so to speak.

Learning in a nondefensive manner is considered to be very important, with teacher and student regarding each other as a "whole person" where intellect and ability are not separated from feelings.

The initial struggles with learning the new language are addressed by creating an environment of mutual support, trust and understanding between both "learner-clients" and the "teacher-counselor.”

The Community Language Learning method involves some of the following features: (1) Students are to be considered as "learner-clients" and the teacher as a "teacher-counselor".

(2) A relationship of mutual trust and support is considered essential to the learning process.

(3) Students are permitted to use their native language, and are provided with translations from the teacher which they then attempt to apply.

(4) Grammar and vocabulary are taught inductively.

(5) "Chunks" of target language produced by the students are recorded and later listened to - they are also transcribed with native language equivalents to become texts the students work with.

(6) Students apply the target language independently and without translation when they feel inclined/ confident enough to do so.

(7) Students are encouraged to express not only how they feel about the language, but how they feel about the learning process, to which the teacher expresses empathy and understanding.

(8) A variety of activities can be included (for example, focusing on a particular grammar or pronunciation point, or creating new sentences based on the recordings/transcripts).

Typical Techniques

(1) Tape Recording Student Conversation (Ss choose what they want to say, and their target language

production is recorded for later listening/dissemination)

(2) Transcription (T produces a transcription of the tape-recorded conversation with translations in the

mother language - this is then used for follow up activities or analysis)

(3) Reflection on Experience (T takes time during or after various activities to allow students to express

how they feel about the language and the learning experience, and T indicates empathy/understanding) (4) Reflective Listening (Students listen to their own voices on the tape in a relaxed and reflective

environment ) (5) Human Computer (T is a "human computer" for the students to control - T stating anything in the target

language the student wants to practice, giving them the opportunity to self correct)

(6) Small Group Tasks (Ss work in small groups to create new sentences using the transcript, afterwards

sharing them with the rest of the class)

Suggestopedia

In the late 70s, a Bulgarian psychologist by the name of Georgi Lozanov introduced the contention that students naturally set up psychological barriers to learning - based on fears that they will be unable to perform and are limited in terms of their ability to learn. Based on psychological research on extrasensory perception, Lozanov began to develop a language learning method that focused on "desuggestion" of the limitations learners think they have, and providing the sort of relaxed state of mind that would facilitate the retention of material to its maximum potential. This method became known as "Suggestopedia" - the name reflecting the application of the power of "suggestion" to the field of pedagogy.

Main Objective

To tap into more of students' mental potential to learn, in order to accelerate the process by which they learn to understand and use the target language for communication.

The four factors considered essential in this process:

The provision of a relaxed and comfortable learning environment.

2. The use of soft Baroque music to help increase alpha brain waves and decrease blood pressure and heart rate.

3. “Desuggestion" in terms of the psychological barriers learners place on their own learning potential, and

4. “Suggestibility" through the encouragement of learners assuming "child-like" and/or new roles and names in the target language.

Here are some of the key features of Suggestopedia:

(1) Learning is facilitated in an environment that is as comfortable as possible, featuring soft

cushioned seating and dim lighting . (2) "Peripheral" learning is encouraged through the presence in the learning environment of posters

and decorations featuring the target language and various grammatical information. (3) The teacher assumes a role of complete authority and control in the classroom.

(4) Self-perceived and psychological barriers to learners' potential to learn are "desuggested".

(5) Students are encouraged to be child-like, take "mental trips with the teacher" and assume new

roles and names in the target language in order to become more "suggestible".

(6) Baroque music is played softly in the background to increase mental relaxation and potential to

take in and retain new material during the lesson.

(7) Students work from lengthy dialogs in the target language, with an accompanying translation

into the students' native language.

(8) Errors are tolerated, the emphasis being on content and not structure. Grammar and vocabulary

are presented and given treatment from the teacher, but not dwelt on.

(9) Homework is limited to students re-reading the dialog they are studying - once before they go to

sleep at night and once in the morning before they get up.

(10) Music, drama and "the Arts" are integrated into the learning process as often as possible.

Typical Techniques

(1) Classroom Set-up (Emphasis is placed on creating a physical environment that does not "feel"

like a normal classroom, and makes the students feel as relaxed and comfortable as possible) (2) Peripheral Learning (Students can absorb information "effortlessly" when it is perceived as part

of the environment, rather than the material "to be attended to") (3) Positive Suggestion (Teachers appeal to students' consciousness and subconscious in order to

better orchestrate the "suggestive“ factors involved in the learning situation)

(4) Visualization (Students are asked to close their eyes and visualize scenes and events, to help

them relax, facilitate positive suggestion and encourage creativity from the students)

(5) Choose a New Identity (Students select a target language name and/or occupation that places

them "inside" the language they are learning)

(6) Role-play (Ss pretend temporarily that they are someone else and perform a role using the

target language)

(7) First Concert (T does a slow, dramatic reading of the dialog synchronized in intonation with

classical music)

(8) Second Concert (Students put aside their scripts and the teacher reads at normal speed

according to the content, not the accompanying pre-Classical or Baroque music - this typically

ends the class for the day)

(9) Primary Activation (Students "playfully" reread the target language out loud, as individuals or in

groups)

(10) Secondary Activation (Students engage in various activities designed to help the students learn

the material and use it more spontaneously - activities include singing, dancing, dramatizations

and games - "communicative intent" and not "form" being the focus)

Whole Language

A holistic philosophy of reading instruction which gained momentum during the 1970s, '80s, and early '90s. Emphasizes the use of authentic text, reading for meaning, the integration of all language skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening), and context.

Key features of Whole Language

1. The key theoretical premise for whole language is that the world over, babies acquire language

through actually using it, not through practicing its separate parts until some later date when the

parts are assembled and the totality is finally used.

2. The major assumption is that the model of acquisition, through real use (not through practice

exercises), is the best model for thinking about and helping with the learning of reading and writing.

3. Language acquisition (both oral and written) is seen as natural - - not in the sense of innate or

inevitable unfolding, but in the sense that when language (oral or written) is an integral part of

functioning of a community and is used around and with neophytes, it is learned "incidentally"...

4. Little use is made of materials written specifically to teach reading and writing. Instead, whole

language relies on literature, on other print used for appropriate purposes (e.g. cake-mix directions

used for really making a cake, rather than for finding short vowels), and on writing for varied

purposes.

Key activities of Whole Language

In order to “Emphasize the use of letter/sound cues along with prior knowledge and context." teachers can do as follows:

1. by modeling how they themselves use meaning (and grammar) along with initial letters to

predict what a word might be;

2. by repeatedly encouraging children to think "what would make sense here" before trying to

sound out a word,

3. by engaging together in oral cloze activities based on their shared readings ("What would fit in

this sentence, 'I put c------ in the soup?'") and

4. by discussing, in literature discussion groups, how various children dealt with problem words.

It is critical to help children develop and use letter/sound knowledge in the context of

constructing meaning from texts.

Multiple Intelligences

Psychologist Howard Gardner, put forth this theory which suggests that an array of different kinds of “intelligence" exists in human beings, that each individual manifests varying levels of these different intelligences, and thus each person has a unique “cognitive profile.“

Objective of Multiple Intelligences

To find more ways of helping all students in their classes. The bottom line is a deep interest in children and how their minds are different from one another, and in helping them use their minds well.

Gardner identifies kinds of intelligences based upon eight criteria to describe something as an independent kind of intelligence, rather than merely one of the skills or abilities included in a kind of intelligence, or a synonym for, or combination of other kinds of intelligence. He proposes the following list:

Linguistic intelligence ("word smart"):

Logical-mathematical intelligence ("number/reasoning smart")

Spatial intelligence ("picture smart")

Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence ("body smart")

Musical intelligence ("music smart")

Interpersonal intelligence ("people smart")

Intrapersonal intelligence ("self smart")

Naturalist intelligence ("nature smart")

Key Criteria for implementing Gardener’s theory in the classroom.

It's very important that a teacher take individual differences among kids very seriously …

Lesson design. Some schools focus on lesson design. This might involve team teaching ("teachers focusing on their own intelligence strengths"), using all or several of the intelligences in their lessons, or asking student opinions about the best way to teach and learn certain topics.

Interdisciplinary units. Secondary schools often include interdisciplinary units.

Student projects. Students can learn to "initiate and manage complex projects" when they are creating student projects.

Assessments. Assessments are devised which allow students to show what they have learned. Sometimes this takes the form of allowing each student to devise the way he or she will be assessed, while meeting the teacher's criteria for quality.

Apprenticeships. Apprenticeships can allow students to "gain mastery of a valued skill gradually, with effort and discipline over time." Gardner feels that apprenticeships "…should take up about one-third of a student's schooling experience."

Neurolinguistic Programming

The word Neurolinguistic programming can be broken down to three distinct words:

1. Neuro , which refers to the brain and neural network that feeds into the brain. Neurons or nerve

cells are the working units used by the nervous system to send, receive, and store signals that

add up to information.

2. Linguistic(s) refers to the content, both verbal and non-verbal, that moves across and through

these pathways.

3. Programming is the way the content or signal is manipulated to convert it into useful information.

The brain may direct the signal, sequence it, change it based on our prior experience, or connect

it to some other experience we have stored in our brain to convert it into thinking patterns and

behaviors that are the essence of our experience of life.

Objectives of Neurolinguistic Programming Our experiences and feelings affect the way we react to external stimuli.

NLP’s main objective is to create and provide tools to help people to learn through many different strategies and for many different modalities of teachers. Also,

Identifying and enriching personal strengths

Enhancing memory and imagination

Developing optimal learning states and strategies

Dealing with resistances to learning

Establishing beliefs that support learning

Identify and reframe limiting beliefs relating to learning

Management of multi-level learning interventions

Transforming perceived failures into positive feedback

Exploring interactive learning processes

NLP Activities in the classroom

Different learning modalities and strategies can be used in classrooms. It is important to discover each student's combination of learning styles and talents to provide to it while simultaneously encouraging the development of all potential abilities (Dryden & Vos, 1999). So, basically a mixture of activities to reach all the different kinds of intelligences are recommended. In the model of NLP defining a learning strategy involves:

1. Identifying the particular sequence of representational systems a person uses within this feedback

loop in order to acquire a mental or behavioral skill.

2. Eliciting a learning strategy by defining the specific sensory modalities (visual, auditory, kinesthetic)

a person uses during the process of acquiring a certain ability or competency.

3. Helm (1990) experimentally has found no discernable differences between sexes or races as to the

distribution of visual, auditory, and kinesthetic learning modalities.

4. The sense modalities are seen as the key to processing information and the mind and body are seen

as mutually influencing each other (Craft, 2001).

5. Related to this NLP strategy concept is research conducted by Gardner (1993) to document that each

person possesses at least seven different types of intelligence:

linguistic intelligence, logical-mathematical intelligence, visual-spatial intelligence, bodily-kinesthetic intelligence, musical intelligence, interpersonal intelligence, and interpersonal intelligence. Gardener sees that individuals can excel in one area but not the others and

that other types of intelligence can also exist.

A single and universally effective learning strategy does not exist. Certain sequences of representational systems tend to be more appropriate for some learning tasks and they may be inefficient in other situations.

The Lexical Approach

The Lexical Approach proposed by Michael Lewis consists not of traditional grammar and vocabulary but often of multi-word prefabricated chunks. This approach is understood as a serious attempt at revaluation for the individual teacher and the profession as it develops many of the fundamental principles advanced by proponents of Communicative Approaches.

Lexical Approach basic principle, is: "Language is grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar“ (Lewis 1993). In other words, lexis is central in creating meaning, grammar plays a subservient managerial role.

'Lexical chunk' is an umbrella term which includes all the other terms. We define a lexical chunk as any pair or group of words which is commonly found together, or in close proximity.

Here are some examples of Lexical Chunks (that are not collocations):

by the way up to now upside down If I were you a long way off out of my mind

'Collocation' is also included in the term 'lexical chunk', but we refer to it separately from time to time, so we define it as a pair of lexical content words commonly found together. Following this definition, 'basic' + 'principles' is a collocation, but 'look' + 'at' is not because it combines a lexical content word and a grammar function word. Identifying chunks and collocations is often a question of intuition, unless you have access to a corpus.

Here are some examples Lexical Chunks (that are collocations):

totally convinced strong accent terrible accident sense of humor sounds exciting brings good luck

There are several aspects of lexis that need to be taken into account when teaching vocabulary. The list below is based on the work of Gairns and Redman (1986):

Boundaries between conceptual meaning : knowing not only what lexis refers to, but also where the boundaries are that separate it from words of related meaning (e.g. cup, mug, bowl).

Polysemy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form with several but closely related meanings (head: of a person, of a pin, of an organisation).

Homonymy: distinguishing between the various meaning of a single word form which has several meanings which are NOT closely related ( e.g. a file: used to put papers in or a tool).

Homophony: understanding words that have the same pronunciation but different spellings and meanings (e.g. flour, flower).

Synonymy: distinguishing between the different shades of meaning that synonymous words have (e.g. extend, increase, expand).

Affective meaning: distinguishing between the attitudinal and emotional factors (denotation and connotation), which depend on the speakers attitude or the situation. Socio-cultural associations of lexical items is another important factor.

Style, register, dialect: Being able to distinguish between different levels of formality, the effect of different contexts and topics, as well as differences in geographical variation.

Translation: awareness of certain differences and similarities between the native and the foreign language (e.g. false cognates).

Chunks of language: multi-word verbs, idioms, strong and weak collocations, lexical phrases.

Grammar of vocabulary: learning the rules that enable students to build up different forms of the word or even different words from that word (e.g. sleep, slept, sleeping; able, unable; disability).

Pronunciation: ability to recognise and reproduce items in speech.

Lexical Approach Activities in the classroom

The implication of the aspects just mentioned in teaching is that the goals of vocabulary teaching must be more than simply covering a certain number of words on a word list. We must use teaching techniques that can help realize this global concept of what it means to know a lexical item. And we must also go beyond that, giving learner opportunities to use the items learnt and also helping them to use effective written storage systems.

Competency-Based Language Teaching

“ CBL is a functional approach to education that emphasizes life skills and evaluates mastery of those skills according to actual leaner performance. It was defined by the U.S. Office of Education as a “performance-based process leading to demonstrated mastery of basic and life skills necessary for the individual to function proficiently in society”

(U.S. Office of Education, 1978).

With regards to a Competency-Based Programme (CBP) and Competency-Based Language Teaching (CBLT), Auerbach (1986) highlights the following features sum up the essence of this approach. They warrant inclusion here as they outline much of what the Tuning Project deems appropriate for second language learning in an academic setting. The features are:

1. A focus on successful functioning in society. The goal is to enable students to become autonomous individuals capable of coping with the demands of the world.

2. A focus on Life skills. Rather than teaching language in isolation, CBLT teaches language as a function of communication about concrete tasks. Students are taught just those language forms/skills required by the situations in which they will function. These forms are determined by "empirical assessment of language required" (Findley and Nathan 1980: 224).

3. Task- or performance-centred orientation. What counts is what students can do as a result of instruction. The emphasis is on overt behaviours rather than on knowledge or the ability to talk about language and skills.

4. Modularized instruction. "Language learning is broken down into manageable and immediately meaningful chunks" (Center for Applied Linguistics 1983: 2). Objectives are broken into narrowly focused sub objectives so that both teachers and students can get a clear sense of progress.

5. Outcomes that are made explicit a priori. Outcomes are public knowledge, known and agreed upon by both learner and teacher. They are specified in terms of behavioral objectives so that students know exactly what behaviors are expected of them.

6. Continuous and ongoing assessment. Students are pre-tested to determine what skills they lack and post-tested after instruction in that skill. If they do not achieve the desired level of mastery, they continue to work on the objective and are re-tested. Program evaluation is based on test results and, as such, is considered objectively quantifiable.

7. Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives. Rather than the traditional paper-and-pencil tests, assessment is based on the ability to demonstrate pre-specified behaviors.

8. Individualized, student-centered instruction. In content, level, and pace, objectives are defined in terms of individual needs; prior learning and achievement are taken into account in developing curricula. Instruction is not time-based; students progress at their own rates and concentrate on just those areas in which they lack competence.

Auerbach (1986: 414-415) in Richards and Rogers (2001:p146)

Subsequently, Richards and Rogers list a series of advantages of this methodology for the learner,

The competencies are specific and practical and can be seen to relate to the learner's needs and interests.

2. The learner can judge whether the competencies seem relevant and useful.

3. The competencies that will be taught and tested are specific and public - hence the learner knows exactly what needs to be learned.

4. Competencies can be mastered one at a time so the learner can see what has been learned and what still remains to be learned.

(Richards and Rogers, 2001: p146-7)

Activities for CBL:

In a content-based approach, the activities of the language class are specific to the subject being taught, and are geared to stimulate students to think and learn through the target language. Such an approach lends itself quite naturally to the integrated teaching of the four traditional language skills. For example, it employs authentic reading materials which require students not only to understand information but to interpret and evaluate it as well. It provides a forum in which students can respond orally to reading and lecture materials. It recognises that academic writing follows from listening, and reading, and thus requires students to synthesise facts and ideas from multiple sources as preparation for writing. In this approach, students are exposed to study skills and learn a variety of language skills which prepare them for a range of academic tasks they will encounter.

Brinton et al., in Richards and Rogers (2001:p220)

The main features of this model are outlined below:

The focus is on process rather than product.

Basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasise

communication and meaning.

Learners learn language by interacting communicatively and

purposefully while engaged in the activities and tasks.

Activities and tasks can be either:

Those that learners might need to achieve in real life;

Those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom.

Activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty.

The difficulty of a task depends on a range of factors including :

the previous experience of the learner,

the complexity of the task,

the language required to undertake the task, and the degree of support available.

Feez in Richards and Rogers (2001: p 224)

ESCUELA NORMAL SUPERIOR “PROFR. MOISÉS SÁENZ GARZA”

Conclusions

It is impossible  or at least very difficult, to use only one method in an English class.

Therefore, we will say we use an Eclectic Approach by applying what we think is the best option to help our students.

Variety and Flexibility are the most important features to implement in a class, in any class.

There is not a quintessential method nor an activity: it all depends on the teacher’s style and the student’s needs.

Keeping updated in teaching stuff is a “must”.

Work sheet

Exercise 1

Read the sentences below and then give the comparative form for each of the adjectives listed.

Tennis is a more difficult sport than Jogging.

I think John is happier now than a year ago.

Could you open the window, please? It's getting hotter in this room by the minute.

interesting ___________

weak ___________

funny ___________

important ___________

careful ___________

big ___________

small ___________

polluted ___________

boring ___________

angry ___________

Exercise 2

Read the sentences below and then give the superlative form for each of the adjectives listed.

New York is the most exciting city in the world.

His biggest desire is to return home.

She is probably the angriest person I know.

interesting ___________

weak ___________

funny ___________

important ___________

careful ___________

big ___________

small ___________

polluted ___________

boring ___________

angry ___________

Exercise 3

Choose one of the topics below and think of three examples from that topic - for example: Sports - football, basketball and surfing. Compare the three objects.

Cities

Sports

Writers

Films

Inventions

Cars

Sources of Information

Baigent, M. (2003) Vocabulary development strategies for teachers and learners http://www.oup.com/elt/global/teachersclub/teaching/articles/development/