2. Explain/give reasons: You are now being asked to say why something you have already described is happening. Use ‘because’ to help you answer these questions. There are often two marks awarded for giving just one reason. Where this happens you will be expected to give a simple statement and its elaboration. Command words tell you exactly what type of information the examiner wants. Compare: Write what is similar and different between two pieces of information. Use the word ‘whereas’ to help you compare. Describe: Just write what you see. You may be asked to describe what you see on a photo, graph or map. Do not explain if you are only asked to describe. Justify: You could be asked to justify a decision you have made. Explain your choices in terms of why they are better than other options open to you. Suggest: This is similar to explain but tells you that you are expected to bring in ideas and understanding of our own and is not provided on the paper. What is meant by?: You are being asked to give a definition of a geographical term. You must know the main terms for each of the four Units. When asked for a definition, giving an example is not enough. Measure: You may be asked to measure on a map or graph. Don’t guess – measure accurately using the scale provided.
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6. Water, Landforms and People: Keywords Abrasion (or corrasion) : Erosion caused by the rubbing and scouring action of rock fragments carried by rivers. Alluvium : Fine soil left behind after a river floods; also called silt. Attrition: Erosion caused when rocks and boulders, transported by rivers and waves, bump into each other and break up into smaller pieces. Condensation: The cooling of a gas so that it changes into a liquid, for instance as water vapour cools, it condenses to become water droplets, which, when heavy enough, fall as rain. Confluence : The point where two rivers meet. Delta: A build up of sediment at the point where a river meets a sea or lake, due to the water velocity slowing and the river having less energy to carry the sediment. Deposition: The laying down of material carried by rivers or waves. Discharge : The amount of water in a river at a given time, usually measured in cumecs (cubic metres per second) Drainage Basin: The area of land drained by a major river and its tributaries. Also called a ‘river basin’. Drought : A prolonged period of weather that is drier than usual. Embankment: A raised riverbank built to prevent or reduce flooding Erosion: The wearing away of the land by material carried by rivers and waves. Estuary: The point at which a river begins to meet the sea. The river will be tidal, meaning that it will have both salt water and fresh water in it. Evaporation: The process by which liquid, such as water, changes to water vapour when it is warmed. Evapotranspiration: The loss of moisture from water surfaces and the soil (evaporation) and vegetation (transpiration). Flood : The flow of water over an area that is usually dry. Floodplain : The wide, flat area at the bottom of a valley which is often flooded. Groundwater: Water stored underground in permeable rocks. Hydrograph: A graph showing changes in the discharge of a river over a period of time. Hydrological (water) cycle: The continuous recycling of water between the sea, air and land.
7. Hydraulic action: Erosion caused by the sheer force of water breaking off small pieces of rock. Impermeable: A rock or soil that does not let water pass through it. Infiltration: The downward movement of water that seeps into the soil or a porous rock. Interlocking spur: Ridges of high ground that project into V-shaped valleys. They occur on alternate sides of a valley and interlink. Lag time : The period of time between peak rainfall ad peak river discharge. Levee: An artificial embankment built to prevent flooding by a river or the sea. Meander : The winding course of a river Mouth : The end of the river, where it meets the sea, or a lake. Overland flow: When water flows over the surface of the ground. This occurs for a number of reasons: the soil may be saturated and therefore be unable to absorb any more water; the underlying rock may be impermeable or the ground may be frozen. Oxbow lake: A crescent-shaped lake which has been cut off from the main river channel and abandoned. Percolation : The movement of water through the soil or underlying porous rock. This water collects as groundwater. Permeable : A rock or soil that allows water to pass through it. Precipitation: The deposition of moisture usually from clouds. It includes rain, hail, snow, sleet, dew, frost and fog. Runoff : Rainfall carried away from an area by streams and rivers. Saltation : A process of transportation by rivers in which small particles bounce along the bed. Solution: A type of chemical weathering in which water dissolves minerals in rocks. Suspension: A process of transportation by rives in which material is picked up and carried along within the water itself. Throughflow : The movement of water within the soil sideways, towards the river. Traction: A process of transportation by rivers in which material is rolled among the bed. Transpiration: The process by which water from plants changes into water vapour. Transportation: The movement of materials by rivers and waves. Tributary: A small river that flows into a larger river. Velocity: The speed of the flow of the river V shaped valley: A narrow, steep-sided valley formed as a result of rapid erosion by a stream or river. Waterfall: A sudden fall of water over a steep drop. Watershed: The boundary separating two river basins.
8. What are the main features of a river? The fastest section of the river, as the channel is widest, with very smooth sides, and the greatest volume of water. The water has increased in speed as the channel widens and becomes smoother. Some boulders cause friction to slow it down a little. Relatively slow moving. Despite areas of fast flowing water, the large amount of material on the river channel bed means that friction will slow the water down. Velocity Deltas; flood plains; levees; meanders; ox-bow lakes Meanders; slip-off slopes; ox-bow lakes Interlocking spurs; waterfalls; V-shaped valley; gorges Features Mainly suspension and solution. Saltation, suspension and solution Traction and saltation Transportation Primarily cuts laterally as it has almost reached base level. The erosive energy of the river is almost totally concentrated on cutting sideways. Much deposition occurs. Continues to cut vertically. But it also begins to cut laterally as it gets closer to base level. Deposition occurs in the slower moving insides of meanders. Primarily vertical erosion, through attrition, abrasion and hydraulic action. Large boulders deposited and eroded in situ. Erosion & Deposition Wide, shallow valley, with large flood plains and meanders. The river channel is wide, deep and smooth sided. v-shaped valley remains with a wider valley floor and the river begins to meander across it. The river channel begins to widen and become deeper. Steep sided v-shaped valley. Thin river channel, deep in places Cross Profile Almost at sea level, very gently sloping towards its mouth Shallow slopes towards the mouth of the river Steeply sloping towards the lower sections of the river Long Profile Lower Course Middle Course Upper Course
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17. People and Place: Keywords Accessibility: how easy a place is to get to Birth rate: the number of live births per 1000 people per year Brownfield site: An area of land that has been built on and is ready for redevelopment Bustee: an Indian term for a shanty town Central Business District (CBD): The commercial and business centre of a town or city where land values are at their highest Commuter: A person who lives some distance from their home to their place of work Counter urbanisation: the movement of people and employment away from large cities to smaller settlements within the countryside Death rate: the number of deaths per 1000 people per year Demographic transition model: a model that tries to show how changes in birth and death rates over a period of time may be related to different stages of development Densely populated: an area of land that is crowded with people Developed countries: Countries that are usually quite rich, have many services and a high standard of living. Also called ‘more economically developed countries’ (MEDCs) Developing countries: Countries that are often quite poor, have few services and a low standard of living. Also called ‘less economically developed countries’ (LEDCs) Function: the main purpose of a town or settlement. Functions include markets, industry, port and resort facilities. Green belt: an area of land around a city where the development of housing and industry is severely restricted and the countryside is protected for farming and recreation. Greenfield site: an area of land that has not previously been built on Gross national product (GNP) per capita: The total value of goods and services produced by a country in a year divided by its total population. Hierarchy: a ranking of settlements or shopping centres according to some measure of their importance e.g. number of services, size, population etc
18. High order goods: products that are usually expensive and only bought occasionally Immigrant: a person who arrives in a country with the intention of living there Infant mortality: the average number of deaths of children under one year of age per 1000 live births Inner city: the part of an urban area next to the city centre characterised by older housing and industry Life expectancy: The average number of years a person born in a particular country can be expected to live Literacy rate: the proportion of people who can read and write Location: the position of a place or feature Low order goods: products that are usually low cost and bought often Migration: the movement of people from one place to another to live or work Natural increase: the growth in population resulting from birth rates being greater than death rates Population density: the number of people living in a given area, usually one square kilometre (1 km ² ) Population distribution: how people are spread out over an area Population explosion: a sudden rapid rise in the number of people in an area Population growth: the increase in the number of people in an area Population pyramid: a type of horizontal bar graph used to show the population structure of an area Pull factors: things that attract people to live in an area Push factors: things that make people want to leave an area Quality of life: a measure of how happy and content people are with their lives Redevelopment: attempts to improve an area Refugees: people who have been forced to move away from their own country and are therefore homeless Regeneration: renewing or improving something that has been lost or destroyed Retailing: the sale of goods individually or in small quantities, usually to shoppers Rural-urban fringe: the area where the city and countryside meet. There is often competition for land use here.
19. Rural-urban migration: the movement of people from the countryside to towns and cities where they wish to live Self-help scheme: a method of improving shanty town areas by encouraging and helping people to improve their own housing Shanty town: a collection of shacks and poor quality housing which often lack electricity, a water supply or any means of sewage disposal. They are common in developing countries and may also be called ‘squatter’, ‘spontaneous’ or ‘informal’ settlements Site: the actual place where a settlement is located Situation: the location of a settlement in relation to the places surrounding it. Sparsely populated: an area that has few people living in it Suburbanised villages: small settlements which have grown in size and become urban areas in countryside surroundings. Also called ‘dormitory towns’ or ‘commuter settlements’, as many residents who live and sleep there travel to nearby towns for work Suburbs: a zone of housing around the edge of a city Urban growth: the increase in the size of towns and cities Urban land use model: a simple map to show how land is used in a city Urban sprawl: the unplanned, uncontrolled growth of urban areas into the surrounding countryside Urbanisation: the increase in the proportion of people living in towns and cities
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27. Climate, Environment and People: Keywords Acid rain: Rainwater containing chemicals that result from burning fossil fuels Altitude: the height of a place above sea level Anticyclone: an area of high pressure usually associated with fine, settled weather Aspect: the direction towards which a slope or building faces Biome: a large ecosystem containing the same types of vegetation and animal life. Examples include the tropical rainforest and savanna grasslands Climate: the average weather conditions of a place over many years Condensation: the process by which water vapour changes to a liquid (rain) or a solid (snow) when cooled Conservation: the care and protection of resources and the environment Convectional rainfall: rain that is produced when the sun heats the ground causing warm air to rise Deforestation: the complete clearance of forested land. Depression: an area of low pressure usually associated with cloud, rain and strong winds Desertification: the gradual change of land into desert Ecosystem: a system where plants and animals interact with each other and their natural surroundings Environment: the surrounding in which people, plants and animals live Food chain or food web: the transfer of energy through and ecosystem from primary producers to consumers and decomposers Fossil fuels: energy resources such as coal, oil and natural gas which come from the fossilised remains of plants and animals Front: the boundary between two masses of air one of which is colder and drier than the other Frontal rainfall: rain that occurs where warm air rises over cold air in a depression Global Warming: the increase in the world’s average temperature, believed to result from the release of carbon dioxide and other gases into the atmosphere Greenhouse effect: the way that gases in the atmosphere trap heat from the sun
28. Hurricane: A severe tropical storm with low pressure, heavy rainfall, and winds of extreme strength which an cause widespread damage. Also called a tropical cyclone Isobar: a line joining points of equal pressure Latitude: the distance of a place north or south from the equator Nutrient recycling: the process by which minerals necessary for plant growth are constantly re-used. They are taken up from the soil by plants then returned when the plants shed their leaves or die. Ocean currents: the flow of water in certain directions within the sea Overcultivation: the exhaustion of the soil by growing crops – especially the same crop – on the same piece of land year after year Overgrazing: where there are too many animals form the amount of food available, which may lead to the destruction and loss of the protective vegetation cover Photosynthesis: the process by which green plants turn sunlight into plant growth Pollution: noise, dirt and other harmful substances produced by people and machines which spoil an area Precipitation: the deposition of moisture usually from clouds. It includes rain, hail, snow, sleet, dew, frost and fog Prevailing wind: the direction from which the wind usually comes Relief: the shape and height of the land Relief rainfall: rain caused by air being forced to rise over hills or mountains Resource: an material or product that people find useful Soil erosion: the wearing away and loss of topsoil, mainly by the action of wind, rain and running water. Storm surge: a rapid rise in sea level caused by storms – especially tropical cyclones – forcing water into a narrowing sea area Synoptic chart: a map showing the state of the weather at a given time Weather: the day to day conditions of the atmosphere, including temperature, sunshine, rainfall and wind
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34. People, Work and Development: Keywords Aid: help usually given by the richer countries of the world, or by international charities, to the poorer countries. It may be short term aid such as food given for an emergency, or long term aid such as training in health care Appropriate technology: development schemes that meet the needs of the local people and the environment in which they live Business park: a group of new offices or modern factories built in pleasant surroundings, usually on the edge of a city Development: the use of resources and technology to increase wealth and improve standards of living – a measure of how rich or how poor a country is Employment structure: the proportion of people working in primary, secondary and tertiary occupations Exports: goods and services produced by a country and sold to other countries Footloose industry: an industry that is not tied to raw materials and so has a wide choice of location Formal sector employment: work that provides a regular income. It may be an office, a shop or an organised factory Free trade: when governments neither restrict nor encourage the movement of goods between countries Heavy industry: the manufacture of goods that require large amounts of bulky or heavy raw materials High-tech industry: an industry using advanced techniques to make high value goods. Examples include computing, biotechnology and telecommunications. Human Development Index (HDI): a measure of development adopted by the United Nations to compare countries. It uses health, education and wealth to measure both social and economic progress Imports: goods and services bought by a country from other countries Industry: any type of economic activity, or employment, that produces goods or provides services
35. Informal sector employment: self-employed work that is irregular and has little or no security. Examples include street trading and shoe shining Interdependence: when countries work together and rely on each other for help Light industry: the production of high value goods such as car stereos and fashion clothing Market: a place where raw materials and goods are sold; or a group of people who by raw materials and goods Multinational company: a large company which, by having factories and offices in several countries, is global because it operates across national boundaries. Also called a ‘transnational corporation’. Newly industrialised countries (NICs): Countries, mainly Pacific Rim of Asia, that have undergone rapid and successful industrialisation since the early 1980s. Primary industries: industries that extract raw materials directly from the land or sea. Examples include farming, fishing, forestry and mining Quaternary industries: industries that provide information and advice or are involved in research. Example of quaternary occupations include financial advisers and research scientists Raw materials: natural resources that are used to make things Science park: an estate of modern offices and high tech industries having links which a university Secondary industries: industries that make, or manufacture, things. They process raw materials or assemble components to make a finished product. Examples include steel making and car assembly. Tertiary industries: occupations such as health, education, transport and retailing that provide a service for people. They may also be called service industries. Trade: the movement and sale of goods and services between one country and another
