1. Ethnic Minority Representations Within Television Advertisements
This research explores racial representations in advertising by observing how ethnic
minorities are represented within television advertisements displayed in the UK. Television
content is to a larger extent unsolicited and therefore scholars and practitioners are often
concerned with the content displayed through this media outlet. Previous research into this
topic has shown an underrepresentation of ethnic minorities in the UK; and current literature
in both the UK and US report on the portrayal of ethnic stereotypes and the exclusion of
certain ethnic minorities. This report aims to evaluate this problem from an ethical marketing
perspective. This paper is an attempt to answer the following research question: “How are
ethnic minorities represented within television advertisements shown in the UK?”
Race and Television Advertisements
Typically, the literature evaluating race and television advertising observes three factors: (1)
Visibility/frequency of ethnic minorities, (2) Representation and stereotypes and (3) Status of
role. It is important to also note that most of the research that looks into racial representations
in advertising and in particular television advertising has been conducted in the US. However,
much of UK television programming comes from the US and the vast majority of brands
advertised on television are American brands. Therefore, the American literature published on
this topic can also be applied to the UK, as there are strong parallels between the two
countries. On the other hand, it must not be forgotten that there are still significant cultural
differences that exist between the two countries; and as a result there is a gap in the literature
published in the UK.
Visibility/ Frequency of Ethnic Minorities.

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There are few UK industry reports that analyse the lack of diversity in UK television
advertisements. The Institute of Practitioners Advertising (IPA) is one body that researches
this topic. In 2012 the IPA published ‘2012 Multicultural Britain’. This report was an audit of
the appearance of black and minority ethnic (BME) actors in television advertisements in the
UK. It found that only one in 20 (5%) of all ads made in 2011 featured any ethnic minority
actors at all (Institute of Practicing Advertisers, 2012). The data showed a declining trend
since 2010, suggesting that BME’s are appearing less in adverts on a yearly average.
However, these figures are criticized to be an underestimate since the agencies voluntary
report their data. In more recent years, US literature has shown that the number of African
Americans shown on advertisements in the US have exceeded their real world demographic.
However, there was still an under representation of other ethnicities (Henderson & Baldasty
2003; Li-Vollmer, 2002; Mastro & Stern, 2003; Merskin, 2008; Taylor & Stern, 1997). Li-
Vollmer (2002) and Taylor & Stern (1997) suggest that token African Americans were
included into more advertisements to give an impression of diversity.
Representation
Research also suggested that although in some cases the amount of racial minority characters
that appear in the media is increasing, there are subtle biases and stereotypes that occur in the
portrayal of ethnic minorities (Entman & Rojecki, 2000; Li-Vollmer, 2002; Mastro & Stern,
2003; Coltrane & Messineo, 2000; Henderson & Baldasty, 2003, Shabbir et al, 2014).
For example, studies suggested that African Americans usually play the role of an athlete or
entertainer (Li-Vollmer, 2002) and that Asian characters were usually portrayed in technology
advertisements (Mastro & Stern, 2003). Mcdonald (1992) described stereotyping in marketing

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communication as “the fear of upsetting the white consumer”. Grey (1995) suggests that race
representations in media legitimate and maintain stereotypes in the real world.
Status of the Role
Research in this area shows that ethnic minorities do not get as many leading roles as their
white counterparts (Li-Vollmer, 2002; Henderson & Baldasty; 2003; IPA; 2012). Li-Vollmer
(2002) also suggested that minorities were in lower status roles, and never spokespeople,
imitators of action, or problem solvers. Minority characters were passive and less likely to
give orders (Coltrane & Messineo, 2000; Merskin 2008). The most recent UK based research
also found that only 1,130 advertisements from the total of 34,499, used minority actors in the
leading role (Institute of Practicing Advertisers, 2012). Research conducted by Li-Vollmer
(2002) and Henderson & Baldasty (2003) was adapted to develop a suitable content analysis
method for this report.
Ethical Marketing Theories and the Representation of Ethnic Minorities in UK Television
Advertisements
Ethical theories are used to help managers determine right and wrong for a given situation
(Crane & Matten, 2010). There are several theories of marketing ethics that marketers use to
tackle ethical implications that may arise as the result of their decisions. These vary between
ethical theorists. However, there are some common theories within existing literature. The
ethics of justice theory posed by John Rawls (1975 as cited in Crane & Matten, 2010) is a
normative theory in business ethics. It is generally associated with economic concepts.
However, its basic principles can be used to address the ethical dilemma of ethnic
misrepresentations in advertising. This theory is underpinned by the basic assumptions of
justifiable right and wrong. Justice is defined as the simultaneous fair treatment of individuals

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(Crane & Matten, 2010). This theory suggests that all humans should be treated equally
through society.
Marketing exclusion (Crane & Matten, 2010) is another concept within marketing ethics that
suggests that brands deliberately do not create marketing and sales activities towards certain
groups. This concept is also used as a theoretical background for the analysis of the results
gained within this report. Furthermore, social learning theory (Bandura , 1997) suggests that
we learn stereotypes from our social environments. This suggests that media is one way
stereotypes can be formed. Research on ethical theories can seem to be indefinite. As
consumers become more fascinated with ethical marketing practices, new theories and
concepts and refinements of older theories are inevitable.
Methodology
The ethnic minorities observed within this study were the black, Asian, mixed races and other
ethnic minorities (BAMEs). A content analysis was conducted to observe the relative
visibility, status and roles of BAMEs in UK television advertisements. The study took place
over a ten-day period. Each day, for two hours all non-program content on a television
channel was observed and evaluated based on three categories; visibility, representation and
status. A different channel was observed each day to obtain results that better represent what
the nation are exposed to. Where an advertisement was played more than once, the data for
that advertisement was only recorded once.
The Quantitative data from the content analysis was analysed using simple descriptive
statistics. These statistics were compared to previous research. General trends were also
gathered from the observed advertisements.

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A semi-structured focus group was also conducted, in order to provide qualitative data; to
gain an insight into different opinions from a wide range of cultures. Before the session,
participants were given time to meet each other and the study started with ice breakers, in an
effort to decrease the level of intimidation between participants and reduce the chance of
members conforming to dominant opinions. Quota sampling method was used to gain the 10
participants; 2 from each of the ethnic backgrounds considered within the scope of this study.
Although this sample size is not able to represent the entire UK population, it can give an
insight into how different ethnicities view various advertisements.
As racial perceptions are a sensitive topic, the focus group was informal in an effort to make
participants feel more open to share honest opinions. This increased the credibility of the
results. The session was recorded so that notes could be made after the interview and general
themes and perspectives from the session were concluded at the end. Six television
advertisements were shown; two that contain only white actors, two that contain only BAME
actors and two that contain a mixture of ethnicities.
Limitations of Methodology
There are several limitations within this study. However, these do not contradict the findings
presented. There were problems associated with the identification of ethnicity. Ethnicity was
determined by visual signifies like skin/eye colour, hair type and by accent. Where cartoon
human characters were presented, their presumed ethnicity was also considered. Ethnicity can
often be seen as subjective self-identifying measure and thus it was sometimes difficult to
determine. Another limitation was that many of the advertisements shown on the UK

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networks featured American advertising content. Thus influencing the validity of the results
against the given research question.
Data Analysis and Discussion
Visibility
A total of 402 commercials were observed within the ten-day period. The overall racial
breakdown for the visibility of each ethnic minority is stated below (figures are rounded to the
nearest percentage). Visibility was measured by evaluating whether there was any actor at all
of each ethnicity within the advertisement. Thus, the frequency would not measure up to 402,
nor will the total percentage be summed up to 100 percent as more than one ethnicity could
have been present in given commercial.
Table 1 - Visibility of each ethnicity within the observed advertisements
Ethnicity Visibility/
Frequency
Percentage (%)
White 395 97
Black 111 27
Asian 16 4
Mixed 24 6
Other/ Unidentified 20 5
Any ethnic minority at all 116 29
Source: compiled by the authors, 2014
The results gained from this study illustrate that marketers within the UK are under-
representing some ethnic minorities in comparison to their real world demographic and over-

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representing others. According to the most recent UK Census, White is the majority ethnic
group at 48.2 million in 2011 (86%). Thus, the ethnic minority consists of the remaining 14%,
with the largest group being Asian/Asian British (7.5%) (Office for National Statistics, 2012).
As 29 % of all the observed advertisements featured any ethnic minority at all, it can be stated
that overall there is an over representation of the ethnic minority population that accounts for
14% of all people in England and Wales (Office for National Statistics, 2012).These results
contradict the industry statistics presented by the IPA which stated that less than 5 % of UK
advertisements featured any ethnic minority.
However, there was a clear underrepresentation of certain ethnic minorities. Approximately
only 4 % of advertisements featured any actor of an Asian or Asian British background,
however their real world demographic is nearly twice this percentage (7.5%). Contrastingly,
the percentage of Black or Black British actors significantly exceeded their real world
demographic as 27% of commercials contained a black actor. Even though, their demographic
representation is only 3.3 %. This over representation of the black ethnicity is also seen in
earlier research conducted by Henderson & Baldasty 2003; Li-Vollmer, 2002; Mastro &
Stern, 2003; Merskin, 2008 and Taylor & Stern, 1997. Out of the 113 advertisements that
contained ethnic minorities, 111 (96 %) contained a black actor. Previous scholars have
suggested that black actors are incorporated into media to suggest cultural diversity (Li-
Vollmer, 2002). However, ‘are we suppressing creativity by arguing that marketers should
portray a reality?’ We are left to question whether creativity overpowers ethical obligations.
The exclusion of the Asian ethnicity poses an ethical dilemma. The aforementioned concept
of marketing exclusion can be applied here. Marketers may be deliberately excluding the

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Asian ethnic minority from their marketing strategies because they see Asian customers as a
niche consumer market. However, statistics show that the purchasing power of ethnic
minorities is growing (Malik, 2011). Thus, brands should strive to advertise products for all
consumer markets in an effort to increase profitability.
Representation
The results also affirmed a clear difference in the type of roles ethnic minorities were given.
Current advertising displays a one-dimensional view of the ethnic minority. The majority of
health and beauty advertisements displayed only white actors. Where actors of an ethnic
minority appeared in a health/ beauty advertisement it was generally because he or she was
already famous and endorsing a product, for instance Beyoncé’s perfume advertisement and
Rita Ora’s Rimmel London commercial. An Ethnic minority only appeared in one household
hygiene/cleaning advertisement and ethnic minorities were predominantly seen in
entertainment advertisements and advertisements where they were already present in the cast
of a television series or movie. It is also interesting to note that all the non-human characters
that represented brands appeared to be of a white ethnicity, for example ‘Mr. Muscle’.
Luxury products and services such as air travel and vehicles were advertised solely by a white
cast. This alludes to marketing manager’s desires to target the upper class white consumer.
Ethnic minorities appeared in abundance in advertisements that asked consumers for financial
aid. One particular advertisement that addressed the issue of young girls forced into married
displayed approximately an equal amount of each ethnic minority.
Representations of ethnic minorities in certain types of advertisements can lead to feelings of
inequality within the ethnic minority consumer market and may mean that ethnic minority

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consumers cannot identify with the products or services brands are advertising. This can
ultimately have an adverse effect on the demand of the product.
In sports, 22 out of the 33 advertisements observed contained black actors. Many of these
advertisements featured Olympians such as Mo Farah and Usain Bolt. This is similar to the
research of Henderson & Baldasty (2003). It suggests that marketers are willing to incorporate
ethnic minorities in roles that do not challenge white social dominance. Other research into
stereotype portrayals affirms that Asians and Asian Americans are more likely to appear in
technology advertisements (Taylor & Stern, 1997) and that African Americans are more
likely to appear in food advertisements (Henderson & Baldasty, 2003). However, this study
does not reveal these patterns.
Referring back to Bandura’s social learning theory (1977) it is suggested that stereotypes are
learnt from our social environment. This being said, the apparent stereotypical patterns of race
representation that appear in advertisements today can surely influence schemas and
contribute to the longevity of stereotypes. Research has indicated that there are correlations
between media portrayals of ethnic minorities and public perceptions (Lule, 2010).
Furthermore, scholars have proven that young children in particular often have an inability to
distinguish between ads and program content (Ward, 1972; Wartella, 1980). Consequently,
displaying stereotypical roles of ethnic minorities is a clear ethical dilemma for marketers.
Status
When evaluating the status ethnic minorities were given, this paper looked at the percentage
of ethnic minority actors in a leading or co-leading role. According to the results within this

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research, only 3 % of advertisements contained an ethnic minority in any form of a leading
role. The majority of ethnic minority actors found in a leading role were of black or mixed
ethnicity. Previous research has also noted a similar trend. Henderson & Baldasty (2003)
stated that although there has been an increasing presence of ethnic minorities in prime-time
television ads, ethnic minorities are still given secondary roles.
One example, in the royal navy reserve advertisement there was a tag line of ‘you earn, you
learn’. Ethnic minorities were displayed within this advertisement but only as secondary
characters and as the children who were learning. This coud suggest subtle racial biases.
White characters played the navy commanding officers. Thus, they were given positions of
power and respect. As aforementioned Merskin (2008) suggested that minority characters are
less likely to give orders.
If we employ the Ethics of justice theory in an effort to understand this occurrence it is clear
that there are ethical issues presented here. The justice theory of business ethics suggests that
all persons should be treated fairly and equally regardless of creed, race and rank (Crane &
Matten, 2010), therefore the representation of ethnic minorities as non-leading characters
displays a view that the ethnic minority group is not equal to their white constituents.
Results from the focus group
The focus group revealed a rich set of qualitative data. Participants were shown 6
advertisements. Participants were asked first to evaluate the effectiveness of advertising.
Participants scored the advertisements out of 10.

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The advertisement that scored the highest (Save the Children advertisement) scored 8.5/10.
Respondents suggested that it was the imagery and gloomy music imbedded within the
advertisement that caused them to give it this mark. There was no mention of race or
ethnicity. However, the advertisement displayed starving children in Africa. The second most
popular advertisement (Burger King) scored 8/10. Participants liked the fact that it showed
that all types of people eat burger king (referring to both race and social status). They also
enjoyed the layout of the commercial and the music. The commercials that participants
thought were funnier generally scored a higher mark
However, when participants were asked about ethicnic minority representation within the
advertisments both the ethnic minority and ethnic majority participants disagreed with the
lack of diversity within the Nivea commercial, for instance. However, only the ethnic
minorities said it would influence their decision to consider that product.
The majority of the participants admitted that they would still consider a product even if their
race did not represent the brand. The exception to this was in the portrayal of beauty and
cosmetic products. The majority of the female ethnic minority participants felt that advertisers
believe their race is seen to not be beautiful enough to represent certain brands.
One of the comments that brought about the most discussion was:
“Many ads don’t seem to include a range of ethnicities, race, whatever you call it.
However when they do, the Blacks, Asians, Mixed, Latino and all other ethnic minorities
never play the good roles We [the respondent was of a mixed Asian background] are still not
good enough to play the leading part.”

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The above comment demonstrated how advertising portrayal influences how people perceive
themselves in society. Several other participants, both of an ethnic minority and majority
agreed with the statement. Not allowing ethnic minorities to have a leading role can lower the
self-esteem in these groups and this was evident in the group discussion. Advertisers need to
make a conscious effort to portray all people as equal and to break the stereotypes.
Male participants had less to comment on. However, they did acknowledge the racial
stereotype. Comments were made against subtle racist imagery and biases. Participants
disagreed with stereotypes that put ethnic minorities in a lower status role.
It is important to note in the conclusion of this analysis and discussion that there is no
definitive meta-theory for identifying moral or ethical dilemmas (Musselman, 2010).
However, the aforementioned theories and analysis of the present data can be used in an effort
to increase the ethical environment of this industry. The results of this study are far reaching.
Recommendations
It is recommended that direct marketers take a combination of things into account when
preparing advertisements. Displaying diversity, not only combats an ethical dilemma but can
also lead to a financial gain. Advertisers should not see ethnic minority consumers as a niche
market, nor should they assume that all persons can relate to one specific character. As
aforementioned, current research shows that the purchasing power of the ethnic minority
population is steadily increasing (Malik, 2011). Thus, representing the ethnic minority
population in a realistic and relatable manner can help firms capitalise on the increasing
ability of ethnic consumers to purchase products and services.

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However, the wider issue is not the visibility of the ethnic minority population but how they
are represented and the status of the roles they are given to perform. Official marketing bodies
such as the ASA and IPA should attempt to create further research to gather qualitative data
towards this area of study. Marketers will not alter their methods of advertising unless
research is provided by industry specialists demonstrating the negative effects of marketing
exclusion and misrepresentation of ethnic minorities.
Conclusion
To conclude, this report adds to the current literature on race and advertising in the UK.
Although the findings within this report do coincide with the industry statistics they do still
make some valid conclusions. It can be summarized that marketers are severely under
representing certain ethnic minority groups and over representing others. It is also clear
that there needs to be a balance of fairness within the representation of ethnic minorities as
ethnic minorities are generally not given a leading role and are also seen to play
stereotypical roles.
Furthermore, it is apparent that there is a gap within UK literature surrounding this topic.
Further research may consist of the exploration of ethnic minorities in other forms of
media such as print media and an economic study on the aggregate financial effects of
marketing exclusion and stereotype portrayals in advertisements. Valuable data can also be
gathered from observing the racial representations in advertising media generated for
children as children are seen as a vulnerable group. In addition, longitudinal research could
be conducted to observe the change in representation over time.

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