From Motivation to Engagement

BEYOND MOTIVATION TO ENGAGEMENT: The Challenge of Knowledge Work
ALMA Conference, Houston, 2001
James W. Marcum, Ph.D.
marcumjw9@aol.com

Lab Management Purpose
Discovery
Problem solving
Testing
Innovation
Implementation
And a good return on investment

Lab Management: Challenges
Researcher or Administrator?
Administrative support to handle
Finance
Personnel
Technology
Publicity, safety, legalities, maintenance…?
… or, how many hats do you wear?
V. P. White, Handbook of Research Laboratory Management (ISI Press, 1988)

Resources
Accomplishments NOT due primarily to
Building and equipment
Financial support
Quality processes
But rather to the dedication, effort, commitment and engagement of the people on the “front lines”

Personnel: Challenge and Opportunity
Traditional management
Control
Accountability
Leadership . . . (dysfunctional?)
The new management
Networking
Empowerment
Coaching
Learning

OUTLINE
Knowledge workers are different
Quit treating people as dummies
Motivation = manipulation
Rewards kill interest
Engagement is worth a try
1
2
3
4

Knowledge Workers: Characteristics
Specialized: effective in specialty
Acquire and apply theoretical and analytical knowledge
Learning-based (formal education) and habit of lifelong learning
Require a social context.
P. Drucker, Managing in a Time of Great Change. (Dutton, 1995), pp. 226-243.
1

Knowledge Workers = Intellectual Capital
… create, share, search out, and useknowledge in their daily routines
T. Davenport & L. Prusak, Working Knowledge, (Harvard Business, 1998), p. 108
they “own” the means of production of the digital economy
D. Tapscott, Digital Economy (McGraw-Hill, 1996), p. 67.

Knowledge Workers: HumanCapital in the Digital Economy
Expect value for value given
Require full disclosure(cynical: have experienced corporate disloyalty/layoffs)
Seek meaning in work; and opportunity for advancement
Require extensive learning
Opportunity to network, work in teams
Smith and Kelly, “Human Capital in the Digital Economy,” in Hesselbein, ed., The Organization of the Future, (Jossey-Bass, 1997), pp. 201-205.

Knowledge Creation
Not best measured by number of patents and scientific formulae
But rather by social trust, care, Ba, technology-enhanced communication, communities of practice, and interorganizational collaboration
I. Nonaka and T. Nishigushi, Knowledge Emergence (Oxford, 2001)

Net Generation: Knowledge Workers of the Future
working = learning = playing = working ...
require flexible, custom environments which they can influence and shape (consensus, not arbitrary command)
simultaneously an authority (some domains) and a student (in others)
cannot be “supervised” (in traditional sense)
require: fully networked connectivity
D. Tapscott, Growing Up Digital (McGraw-Hill, 1997).

The Motivation ‘Complex’
A paradigm: Ubiquitous assumptions underlie social attitudes about learning, child-raising, and employment
Enormous industry of “motivators”
Books
Speakers
Recognition and Awards
Bonuses, trips
2

The Problem with Motivation
Idea of “motivating people” should be banished from the language of management
Amounts to manipulation and control
Demeaning and dysfunctional

The Problem with Motivation
Idea of “motivating” people should be banished from the language
Amounts to manipulation and control
Demeaning and dysfunctional
X

People … dummies?
Motivation image: Carrot and Stick ... what lies in between?
. . . motivation, as practiced, treats people like ....
H. Levinson, “Asinine Ideas toward Motivation,” Harvard Business Review, (January 1973).

Motivation: Evolving Models
Behaviorism (person as machine)
Cognition (person as decision-maker)
Purpose (person as creator of meaning)
Maehr and Meyer, “Understanding Motivation and Schooling,” Educational Psychology Review (1997).

Motivation I: Behaviorism
Assumptions of biological core dominated early 20th Century ideas
Stressed appetites, instincts, frustrations
Biological / mechanical assumptions
Watson; Hull’s “drives;” Skinner’s S-R theory
Freudianism (drives vs. civilization) as well
Cofer and Appley, Motivation: Theory and Research (Wiley, 1964).

Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation
Shadow of B. F. Skinner(positive reinforcement)
Rewards seen as universally beneficial
Yet we’ve known for 25 years that (external) rewards are detrimental to ...
Intrinsic motivation: underlies cyclical patterns of behavior where people seek out and conquer challenges that are optimal for their capacities
The Hidden Costs of Reward, ed. Lepper & Greene (L. Erlbaum, 1978)

Motivation II: Cognition Theory
Cognition Theory “OVERTHREW” Behaviorism by mid-20th Century
New focus on Mind, Perception
And the Self (self-management, self determination, self efficacy, etc...)
Handbook of Motivation and Cognition, 3 vols.
Ed. Sorrentino & Higgins (Guilford, 1986-96);
B. Weiner, Human Motivation (Sage, 1992);
R. Sperry, in Science of the Mind (1995), 35-49.

Motivation II to III: Approaches
Motivation Research Models
Individual differences
Situational variations
Interaction (individual X situation)
Maehr and Meyer, “Understanding Motivation…”
From “Scientific Management” to Human Relations
Needs hierarchy (Maslow)
Hygiene factors (Herzberg)
Theory Y (McGregor)

Motivation III: Creating Purpose and Meaning
... draws on the best from the past
Motivation theory encompasses cognition, consciousness, self, emotions, affiliation, and achievement
Weiner, in Handbook of Motiv. & Cognition, I, 281-292.
For example: Quality(Deming),Empowerment(Kanter), Learning Organization(Senge), and Knowledge Managementstill use “motivation”

Motivation III Toolbox
Since hierarchy and management power have eroded, the new tools are:
Mission(importance of the work)
Agenda Control(influence over own lives)
Share in Value Creation(entrepreneurship)
Learning(both individual and group)
Reputation(essential for professionals)
R. M. Kanter “New Managerial Work,” Harvard Business Review, 1989.

Continued Reliance on“Motivation” by Business
Recognition and rewards are vital to a quality evaluation program
T. Peters, Thriving on Chaos (Knopf, 1988), pp. 494-502.
Outstanding companies practice: security, high wages, cross-training, “ownership”
J. Pfeffer, Competitive Advantage ... People (HBS, 1994).
Must manage motivation effectively via equity, availability, visibility, and rewards
S. Kerr, Ultimate Rewards (Harvard Business, 1997).

Motivation: Weaknesses of the Theory
Goal: Cause action(where there was none)
Vroom, Work and Motivation, p. 8.
Incidental(not continuous)
“Paternalistic:” energize & direct behavior
Cofer & Appleby, pp. 12-13.
Linear, deterministic(i.e., behavioral)
Over-reliant on rewards

Motivation III: Current Practice
Retains heavy reliance on REWARDS, incentives and participation
R. M. Steers, et al., Motivation and Leadership at Work. 6th Ed. (McGraw-Hill, 1996);
T. Quick, The Manager’s Motivation Desk Book (Wiley, 1985);
Crandall & Wallace, Work and Rewards in the Virtual Workplace (AMACOM, 1998), pp. 148-151.

The Problem with Rewards
Tangible and expected rewardsundermine free-choice intrinsic motivation(findings of 128 studies)
Only exceptions:
Disagreeable tasks
Verbal feedback (recognition of competence) if unexpected and “non-controlling”…
Deci, Koestner, & Ryan, “A Meta-analytic Review,”
3

Rewards
Kill Interest

Rewards
Rewards signal that the task itself is not worth doing

Problem with Rewards: 2
Rewards require surveillance, competition, and evaluation, all of which diminish intrinsic motivation (kill interest)
Rewards also rupture relationships, disrupt teams, punish everyone else, and discourage risk-taking
A. Kohn, Punished by Rewards (H-Mifflin, 1993).
R. M. Steers, et al., Leadership and Motivation. (McGraw-Hill, 1986), pp. 496-526.

ENGAGEMENT:Dictionary Definition
to attract, hold by influence or power
to entangle, entrap, engross
to induce to participate, to join in
to provide occupation for
to commit to appear for an event
to interlock, place in gear (mechanical)
to enter into conflict (military)
temporal (more than 1, less than permanent)
Oxford English Dictionary, (1989), V, 247-249.
4

Engagement: Definitions from theLiterature of Motivation
assumes activity
is absorbing, engrossing
implies enjoyment … and interest
pertains to subject’s field of competence
requires direct participation
involves acquiring more & better knowledge
demands significant self-determination
involves challenging tasks
is characterized by persistence

Engagement: Definitions from Learning Theory
Self-determination(Deci & Ryan, Bandura)
Creative task engagement(Conti)
Competence(Connell and Wellborn)
Context, personalization, choice(Cordova)
Interest, enjoyment, flow(Hidi, Csikszentmihalyi)
Self-reaction(Bandura and Cervone)
Self-regulated learning(Corno & Mandinach)
NOTE: focus is on learning goals, not achievement goals.

The Engagement Model:Contributions
MotivationTheory
Learning Theory
Activity-Engagement Systems Theory
Action identification (Wegner/Vallacher)
Action engagement (Higgins/Trope)
Action theory (Kuhl/Atkinson)
Other ideas: communication, information management, and purposeful work

Activity Systems Theory
Psychological study of behavior is atomistic, focusing on pieces, elements
Much human activity, such as language and relationships and work processes, is broader, holistic, more purposeful
Clark and Crossland, Action Systems (1985)
NOTE: Activity is assumed in engagement; it is a goal of motivation.

Engagement Theory:Other Contributions, #1:
Relationships and process of communication engaging the interests of another in the absence of coercion
Involves dialogue and introspection
Requires openness -- not closed and complete situation
[Engagement/inverseauthority]
M. McMaster, Intelligence Advantage (1996).

Engagement Theory:Contributions, #2
By choosing to engage/not we enjoy a tool and measure for informationmanagement; a scale for handling information overload:
passive (seeing, hearing)
discussion
presenting or teaching
using in practice
T. Davenport, Information Ecology (Oxford, 1997).

Engagement Theory:Contributions, #3
Engagement in empowering work gives purpose to human life, structures time, and provides a valuable tool for positive self-esteem and mental health
Meaningless work does not …
Mee and Sumsion, “The Motivating Power of Occupation,” British Journal Occupational Therapy (March 2001): 121-128.

Organizational Engagement:Contributions, #4
Interaction between
Social Systems(people)
Technical Systems(work processes)
Communication Systems(decision making and organization change)
Cherin, “Organizational Engagement…” Administration in Social Work (2000
Also see Nonaka and Nishiguchi, Knowledge Emergence (Oxford, 2001)

Not necessarily
Self-actualization
Feelings of wholeness, integration, suspension of judgement, clear perception, sense of awe, feelings of power and beauty, self-confident, creative … without awareness of space and time- (Maslow)
Flow
Intense concentration, lack of self-consciousness, effortlessness, oblivious of distraction
Autotelic: process is the reward - (Csikszentmihalyi)
Kytle, “Constructing an Engaged Life,” (2000)
PEAK EXPERIENCE

But ratherMIDDLE RANGE DYNAMICS
Attention, mindfulness (consider options)
Ellen Langer, Mindfulness (1989)
Ba(Japanese) shared physical / mental space
Nonaka & Ishigushi, Knowledge Emergence (2001)
Care: Fostered by: trust, active empathy, real help, lenient judgement, and courage
Destroyed by: bureaucracy, competition, and punishment
G. von Krogh, “Care in Knowledge Management” California Management Review (Spring ‘98)

ENGAGEMENT: The Theory
Engagement = Learning(Interest + Competence + Challenge + “Change”)
+ Involvement(Participation + “Hands on”+ Commitment)
In a Social Context
Increased Knowledge & Effectiveness
ENGAGEMENT! =Learning...
Marcum,“Out with Motivation, In with Engagement,” National Productivity Review(1999).

Engagement vs. Motivation
Goal: learning and greater knowledge
Assumes equality among participants
Assumes activity, and motivation
Is ongoing, temporal
Seeks meaning/care
Holistic
Goal: initiate action
Protagonist assumes responsibility
Seeks control, influence
Incidental
Biological core
Atomistic, linear, deterministic

From Motivation to Engagement
However sophisticated, motivation endeavors seek to control and manipulate and are therefore unsuitable for managing knowledge workers.
An “engagement” mindset offers a more useful model for mutually beneficial working relationships with knowledge workers.

In Brief:
Motivation = control and manipulation
Engagement = learning and involvement in a social context

Rewards

Implementing Engagement: Suggested Guidelines
Think partnerships, not “employees”
Scan for interests and competencies, not past records
Focus on achievements, not processes
Provide for continuous learning
Test with challenges and opportunities
Negotiate projects, avoid assignments

Engagement Guidelines(continued):
Provide networked, participative digital environment
Dismantle boundaries; review and restructure processes and procedures
Foster teamwork and collaboration
Measure and improve morale
Seek to build an environment (Ba) that is both fun and purposeful

Management Models: Engagement Vs. Motivation
Leader as coach and facilitator
Scrambling to keep up with the pack
Running a tight ship
Leader in control, giving directions

Review
Motivation = control and manipulation (Baaad!)
Engagement = learning and involvement (GOOD!)

Rewards

Engagement
Engagement occurs when an individual or group undertake tasks related to their interests and competence, learn about it continuously, participate freely with (equal) associates, immerse themselves deeply, and continue the task with persistence and commitment because of the value they attribute to the work.

ENGAGEMENT AND “DISCOVERY”
Discovery (definition):
Uncovering, disclosing, or bringing something to light for the first time

Discovery (learning) Strategies
Allow for initiative and self-direction
Allow choice in methods utilized
Utilize new technologies
Provide for work in teams
Provide “room” for perseverance and adaptation as competence is acquired
Marcum, “From Information Center to Discovery System,” Journal of Academic Librarianship (2001).

Managing Discovery
An engaged staff offers the greatest potential for making discoveries and accomplishing important goals cost-effectively.

Good Luck …Jim Marcum
Marcum@postbox.csi.cuny.edu
marcumjw9@aol.com

From Motivation to Engagement

by James W. Marcum

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