CHAPTER 23 Performance Measurement, Compensation, and Multinational Considerations

Financial and Nonfinancial Measures Firms are increasingly presenting financial and nonfinancial performance measures for their subunits in a Balanced Scorecard, and it’s four perspectives: Financial Customer Internal Business Process Learning and Growth

Firms are increasingly presenting financial and nonfinancial performance measures for their subunits in a Balanced Scorecard, and it’s four perspectives:

Financial

Customer

Internal Business Process

Learning and Growth

Balanced Scorecard Flow Firms assume that improvements in learning and growth will lead to improvements in internal business processes Improvements in the internal business processes will lead to improvements in the customer and financial perspectives

Firms assume that improvements in learning and growth will lead to improvements in internal business processes

Improvements in the internal business processes will lead to improvements in the customer and financial perspectives

Accounting-Based Performance Measures Requires a six-step design process: Choose Performance Measures that align with top management’s financial goals Choose the time horizon of each Performance Measure Choose a definition of the components in each Performance Measure Choose a measurement alternative for each Performance Measure Choose a target level of performance Choose the timing of feedback

Requires a six-step design process:

Choose Performance Measures that align with top management’s financial goals

Choose the time horizon of each Performance Measure

Choose a definition of the components in each Performance Measure

Choose a measurement alternative for each Performance Measure

Choose a target level of performance

Choose the timing of feedback

Step 1: Choosing among Different Performance Measures Four common measures of economic performance: Return on Investment Residual Income Economic Value Added Return on Sales Selecting Subunit Operating Income as a metric is inappropriate since it obviously differs simply on the differing size of the subunits

Four common measures of economic performance:

Return on Investment

Residual Income

Economic Value Added

Return on Sales

Selecting Subunit Operating Income as a metric is inappropriate since it obviously differs simply on the differing size of the subunits

Return on Investment (ROI) ROI is an accounting measure of income divided by an accounting measure of investment

ROI is an accounting measure of income divided by an accounting measure of investment

ROI Most popular metric for two reasons: Blends all the ingredients of profitability (revenues, costs, and investment) into a single percentage May be compared to other ROIs both inside and outside the firm Also called the Accounting Rate of Return (ARR) or the Accrual Accounting Rate of Return (AARR)

Most popular metric for two reasons:

Blends all the ingredients of profitability (revenues, costs, and investment) into a single percentage

May be compared to other ROIs both inside and outside the firm

Also called the Accounting Rate of Return (ARR) or the Accrual Accounting Rate of Return (AARR)

ROI ROI may be decomposed into its two components as follows: ROI = Return on Sales X Investment Turnover This is known as the DuPont Method of Profitability Analysis

ROI may be decomposed into its two components as follows:

ROI = Return on Sales X Investment Turnover

This is known as the DuPont Method of Profitability Analysis

Residual Income Residual Income (RI) is an accounting measure of income minus a dollar amount for required return on an accounting measure of investment RI = Income – (RRR x Investment) RRR = Required Rate of Return Required Rate of Return times the Investment is the imputed cost of the investment Imputed costs are costs recognized in some situations, but not in the financial accounting records

Residual Income (RI) is an accounting measure of income minus a dollar amount for required return on an accounting measure of investment

RI = Income – (RRR x Investment)

RRR = Required Rate of Return

Required Rate of Return times the Investment is the imputed cost of the investment

Imputed costs are costs recognized in some situations, but not in the financial accounting records

Economic Value Added (EVA ® ) EVA is a specific type of residual income calculation that has recently gained popularity Weighted-average cost of capital equals the after-tax average cost of all long-term funds in use

EVA is a specific type of residual income calculation that has recently gained popularity

Weighted-average cost of capital equals the after-tax average cost of all long-term funds in use

Return on Sales (ROS) Return on Sales is simply income divided by sales Simple to compute, and widely understood

Return on Sales is simply income divided by sales

Simple to compute, and widely understood

Step 2: Choosing the Time Horizon of the Performance Measures Multiple periods of evaluation are sometimes appropriate ROI, RI, EVA, and ROS all basically evaluate one period of time ROI, RI, EVA, and ROS may all be adapted to evaluate multiple periods of time

Multiple periods of evaluation are sometimes appropriate

ROI, RI, EVA, and ROS all basically evaluate one period of time

ROI, RI, EVA, and ROS may all be adapted to evaluate multiple periods of time

Step 3: Choosing Alternative Definitions for Performance Measures Four possible alternative definitions of investment: Total Assets Available Total Assets Employed Total Assets Employed minus Current Liabilities Stockholders’ Equity

Four possible alternative definitions of investment:

Total Assets Available

Total Assets Employed

Total Assets Employed minus Current Liabilities

Stockholders’ Equity

Step 4: Choosing Measurement Alternatives for Performance Measures Possible alternative definitions of cost: Current Cost Gross Value of Fixed Assets Net Book Value of Fixed Assets

Possible alternative definitions of cost:

Current Cost

Gross Value of Fixed Assets

Net Book Value of Fixed Assets

Step 5: Choosing Target Levels of Performance Historically driven targets used to set target goals Goal may include a Continuous Improvement component

Historically driven targets used to set target goals

Goal may include a Continuous Improvement component

Step 6: Choosing the Timing of the Feedback Timing of feedback depends on: How critical the information is for the success of the organization The specific level of management receiving the feedback The sophistication of the organization’s information technology

Timing of feedback depends on:

How critical the information is for the success of the organization

The specific level of management receiving the feedback

The sophistication of the organization’s information technology

Performance Measurement in Multinational Companies Additional Difficulties faced by Multinational Companies: The economic, legal, political, social, and cultural environments differ significantly across countries Governments in some countries may impose controls and limit selling prices of a company’s products Availability of materials and skilled labor, as well as costs of materials, labor, and infrastructure may differ across countries Divisions operating in different countries account for their performance in different currencies

Additional Difficulties faced by Multinational Companies:

The economic, legal, political, social, and cultural environments differ significantly across countries

Governments in some countries may impose controls and limit selling prices of a company’s products

Availability of materials and skilled labor, as well as costs of materials, labor, and infrastructure may differ across countries

Divisions operating in different countries account for their performance in different currencies

Distinction between Managers and Organization Units The performance evaluation of a manager should be distinguished from the performance evaluation of that manager’s subunit, such as a division of the company

The performance evaluation of a manager should be distinguished from the performance evaluation of that manager’s subunit, such as a division of the company

The Trade-Off: Creating Incentives vs. Imposing Risk An inherent trade-off exists between creating incentives and imposing risk An incentive should be some reward for performance An incentive may create an environment in which suboptimal behavior may occur: the goals of the firm are sacrificed in order to meet a manager’s personal goals

An inherent trade-off exists between creating incentives and imposing risk

An incentive should be some reward for performance

An incentive may create an environment in which suboptimal behavior may occur: the goals of the firm are sacrificed in order to meet a manager’s personal goals

Moral Hazard Moral Hazard describes situations in which an employee prefers to exert less effort (or report distorted information) compared with the effort (or accurate information) desired by the owner because the employee’s effort (or the validity of the reported information) cannot be accurately monitored and enforced

Moral Hazard describes situations in which an employee prefers to exert less effort (or report distorted information) compared with the effort (or accurate information) desired by the owner because the employee’s effort (or the validity of the reported information) cannot be accurately monitored and enforced

Intensity of Incentives Intensity of Incentives – how large the incentive component of a manager’s compensation is relative to their salary component

Intensity of Incentives – how large the incentive component of a manager’s compensation is relative to their salary component

Preferred Performance Measures Preferred Performance Measures are those that are sensitive to or change significantly with the manager’s performance They do not change much with changes in factors that are beyond the manager’s control They motivate the manager as well as limit the manager’s exposure to risk, reducing the cost of providing incentives May include Benchmarking

Preferred Performance Measures are those that are sensitive to or change significantly with the manager’s performance

They do not change much with changes in factors that are beyond the manager’s control

They motivate the manager as well as limit the manager’s exposure to risk, reducing the cost of providing incentives

May include Benchmarking

Performance Measures at the Individual Activity Level Two issues when evaluating performance at the individual activity level: Designing performance measures for activities that require multiple tasks Designing performance measures for activities done in teams

Two issues when evaluating performance at the individual activity level:

Designing performance measures for activities that require multiple tasks

Designing performance measures for activities done in teams

Compensation for Multiple Tasks If the employer wants an employee to focus on multiple tasks of a job, then the employer must measure and compensate performance on each of those tasks

If the employer wants an employee to focus on multiple tasks of a job, then the employer must measure and compensate performance on each of those tasks

Team-Based Compensation Companies use teams extensively for problem solving Teams achieve better results than individual employees acting alone Companies must reward individuals on a team based on team performance

Companies use teams extensively for problem solving

Teams achieve better results than individual employees acting alone

Companies must reward individuals on a team based on team performance

Executive Compensation Plans Based on both financial and nonfinancial performance measures, and include a mix of: Base Salary Annual Incentives, such as cash bonuses Long-Run Incentives, such as stock options Well-designed plans use a compensation mix that balances risk (the effect of uncontrollable factors on the performance measure, and hence compensation) with short-run and long-run incentives to achieve the firm’s goals

Based on both financial and nonfinancial performance measures, and include a mix of:

Base Salary

Annual Incentives, such as cash bonuses

Long-Run Incentives, such as stock options

Well-designed plans use a compensation mix that balances risk (the effect of uncontrollable factors on the performance measure, and hence compensation) with short-run and long-run incentives to achieve the firm’s goals

Strategy and Levers of Control Levers of Control: Diagnostic Control Systems Boundary Systems Belief Systems Interactive Control Systems Each lever is important and needs to be monitored Levers should be interdependent and collectively represent a living system of business conduct

Levers of Control:

Diagnostic Control Systems

Boundary Systems

Belief Systems

Interactive Control Systems

Each lever is important and needs to be monitored

Levers should be interdependent and collectively represent a living system of business conduct

Diagnostic Control Systems Diagnostic Control Systems evaluate whether a firm is performing to expectations by monitoring and evaluating critical performance metrics, including: ROI, RI, EVA Customer Satisfaction Employee Satisfaction MUST be balanced by the other lever of control

Diagnostic Control Systems evaluate whether a firm is performing to expectations by monitoring and evaluating critical performance metrics, including:

ROI, RI, EVA

Customer Satisfaction

Employee Satisfaction

MUST be balanced by the other lever of control

Boundary Systems Boundary Systems describe standards of behavior and codes of conduct expected of all employees Highlights actions that are “off-limits” A code of conduct describes appropriate and inappropriate individual behaviors

Boundary Systems describe standards of behavior and codes of conduct expected of all employees

Highlights actions that are “off-limits”

A code of conduct describes appropriate and inappropriate individual behaviors

Belief Systems Belief Systems articulate the mission, purpose, and core values of a company They describe the accepted norms and patterns of behavior expected of all managers and employees with respect to each other, shareholders, customers, and communities

Belief Systems articulate the mission, purpose, and core values of a company

They describe the accepted norms and patterns of behavior expected of all managers and employees with respect to each other, shareholders, customers, and communities

Interactive Control Systems Interactive Control Systems are formal information systems that managers use to focus organizational attention and learning on key strategic issues Tracks strategic uncertainties that businesses face

Interactive Control Systems are formal information systems that managers use to focus organizational attention and learning on key strategic issues

Tracks strategic uncertainties that businesses face