2. What is Learning?
Learning has many definitions
Learning is a change in behavior of the learner as a result
of experience. The behavior can be physical and overt, or
it can be intellectual or attitudinal
The process by which experience brings about a
relatively permanent change
The change in behavior that results from experience and
practice
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3. What is Learning?
Learning has many definitions
Gaining knowledge or skills, or developing a behavior,
through study, instruction, or experience.
The process of acquiring knowledge or skill through
study, experience, or teaching.
The instructor needs to understand the subject being
taught, the student, the learning process, and the
interrelationships that exist
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4. Learning Theory
Learning theory is a body of principles advocated by
psychologists and educators to explain how people
acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes.
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5. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a school of psychology that explains
animal and human behavior entirely in terms of
observable and measurable responses to stimuli
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6. Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory focuses on what is going on inside the
mind. It is more concerned with cognition (the process
of thinking and learning)—knowing, perceiving,
problem-solving, decision-making, awareness, and
related intellectual activities—than with stimulus and
response
Jerome Bruner advocated learning from the known to
the unknown, or from concrete to the abstract.
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7. Cognitive Theory
Benjamin Bloom tried
to classify the levels of
thinking behavior
thought to be
important in the
process of learning.
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8. Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory uses a computer system
as a model for human learning. The human brain
processes incoming information, stores and retrieves
it, and generates responses to the information.
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9. Constructivism
A derivative of cognitive theory, constructivism is a
philosophy of learning that can be traced to the
eighteenth century. This theory holds that learners do
not acquire knowledge and skills passively but actively
build or construct them based on their experiences.
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10. Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOT)
Commonly called aeronautical decision-making
Uses the last three categories of Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Learning
Analysis, synthesis and evaluation
Teaching these skills are essential to judgment,
decision-making and critical thinking
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11. Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS)
To teach HOTS effectively involves several strategies
and methods
Problem-based learning instruction
Authentic problems
Real world problems
Student-centered learning
Active learning
Cooperative learning
Customized instruction
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12. Perceptions
All learning comes from perceptions, which are
directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses
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13. Perception
Factors that Affect Perception
Physical organism
Goals and Values
Self-concept
Time and opportunity
Element of threat
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15. Acquiring Knowledge
Memorization
A students first attempt to acquire knowledge about a
new topic will result in memorizing facts about a
procedure
Understanding
Ability to notice similarities and make associations
between the facts and procedural steps learned
Concept Learning
Enhances students understanding
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16. Laws of Learning
Readiness
The basic needs of the learner must be satisfied before he or
she is ready or capable of learning. The instructor can do little
to motivate the learner if these needs have not been met. This
means the learner must want to learn the task being
presented and must possess the requisite knowledge and skill.
Effect
All learning involves the formation of connections and
connections are strengthened or weakened according to the
law of effect. Responses to a situation that are followed by
satisfaction are strengthened; responses followed by
discomfort are weakened, either strengthening or weakening
the connection of learning.
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17. Laws of Learning
Exercise
Connections are strengthened with practice and
weakened when practice is discontinued, which reflects
the adage “use it or lose it.” The learner needs to practice
what has been learned in order to understand and
remember the learning.
Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong,
almost unshakable impression and underlies the reason
an instructor must teach correctly the first time and the
student must learn correctly the first time.
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18. Laws of Learning
Intensity
Immediate, exciting, or dramatic learning connected to
a real situation teaches a learner more than a routine or
boring experience.
Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently
learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a
learner is removed in time from a new fact or
understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.
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19. Domains of Learning
Cognitive
Affective Domain
Addresses a learner’s emotions towards the learning
experience. It includes feelings, values, enthusiasms,
motivations, and attitudes
Psychomotor Domain
Skill based learning and includes physical movement,
coordination, and the use of motor-skills. Development
of these skills require repetitive practice and is measured
in terms of speed, precision, distance and technique.
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20. Levels of Learning
Rote
The ability to repeat something back which was learned, but
not understood.
Understanding
To comprehend or grasp the nature or meaning of something.
Application
The act of putting something to use that has been learned
and understood.
Correlation
Associating what has been learned, understood, and applied
with previous or subsequent learning.
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21. Characteristics of Learning
Learning if Purposeful
Each student has specific intentions and goals. Some
may be shared by other students. Students learn from
any activity that tends to further their goals. Their
individual needs and attitudes may determine what they
learn as much as what the instructor is trying to get
them to learn. In the process of learning, the student’s
goals are of paramount significance. To be effective,
aviation instructors need to find ways to relate new
learning to the student’s goals.
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22. Characteristics of Learning
Learning is a Result of Experience
A person’s knowledge is a result of experience, and no
two people have had identical experiences. Even when
observing the same event, two people react differently;
they learn different things from it, according to the
manner in which the situation affects their individual
needs.
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23. Characteristics of Learning
Learning is Multifaceted
Each student approaches a task with preconceived ideas
and feelings, and for many students, these ideas change
as a result of experience. Therefore, the learning process
may include verbal elements, conceptual elements,
perceptual elements, emotional elements, and problemsolving elements all taking place at once.
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24. Characteristics of Learning
Learning is an Active Process
The instructor cannot assume that students remember
something just because they were in the classroom,
shop, or aircraft when the instructor presented the
material. Neither can the instructor assume the students
can apply what they know because they can quote the
correct answer verbatim. For students to learn, they
need to react and respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps
only inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually.
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25. Acquiring Skill Knowledge
Skill knowledge is acquired slowly through related
experience
Three stages of skill knowledge acquisition
Cognitive Stage-The student must learn the facts
Associative Stage- The student must practice
Automatic Response Stage- As the student practices,
procedures become more automated and second nature
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26. Learning Plateaus
Learning Plateaus are normal in the learning process
and are usually temporary.
Student may have reached ac capability limits
Instructors can over practice
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27. Types of Practice
Once a student learns a skill, it is important to
continue some practice to improve retention of the
skill. But how much practice is the question?
Deliberate Practice
The student practices specific areas for improvement
and receives specific feedback after the practice.
Students achieve better results with fewer distractions
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28. Types of Practice
Blocked Practice
Practicing the same drill until the movement becomes
automated
Can enhance current performance, it does not improve
either concept learning or retrieval from long-term
memory
Random Practice
Mixes up the skills to be acquired throughout the
practice session.
Leads to better retention, students can recognize the
similarities and differences between the skills
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29. Evaluation Versus Critique
In the initial stages of skill acquisition, practical
suggestions are more valuable to the student than a
grade.
Overlearning of Knowledge is the continued study of a
skill after initial proficiency has been achieved. The
students performance is characterized less by
understanding of concepts, but more by an automatic
process
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30. Putting it All Together
Mulitasking is the simultaneous execution of two or
more task. A proficient pilot must be able to multitask
Attention switching, the student needs to be able to
switch attention between two or more tasks during a
flight
Performing several tasks at once, or simultaneous
performance, is the second type of multitasking
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31. Motivation
Motivation is the reason one acts or behaves in a
certain way. An important part of an instructor’s job is
to discover what motivates each student and use this
information to encourage him or her to work hard.
Positive motivation is essential to true learning.
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32. Maintaining Motivation
Motivation is generally not something that can be
transferred from one person to another. Instructors
must be skillful at recognizing problems with
motivations and at encouraging students to do their
best
Rewarding Feedback
Positive feedback encourages students.
Presenting New Challenges
Keep pushing the student to do their best
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33. Memory
Memory is the vital link between the student
learning/retaining information and the cognitive
process of applying what is learned. It is the ability of
people and other organisms to encode (initial
perception and registration of information), store
(retention of encoded information over time), and
retrieve (processes involved in using stored
information) information.
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34. Memory
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the part of the memory system that
receives initial stimuli from the environment and
processes them according to the individual’s
preconceived concept of what is important.
Short Term Memory
Short-term memory is the part of the memory system
where information is stored for roughly 30 seconds, after
which it may rapidly fade or be consolidated into longterm memory, depending on the individual’s priorities.
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35. Memory
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory (LTM) is relatively permanent
storage of unlimited information and it is possible for
memories in LTM to remain there for a lifetime. What is
stored in LTM affects a person’s perceptions of the world
and affects what information in the environment is
noticed.
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36. Usage of Knowledge
How we use the knowledge or skill affects how we
retrieve it from memory
How often the knowledge has been used in the past
How recently the knowledge has been used
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37. Memory
Forgetting- loss of a memory, typically involves a
failure in memory retrieval
Retrieval Failure-the inability to retrieve information
Fading- a person begins to forget information that is not
used for extended periods of time
Interference- a person can forget an experience, because
another experience has overshadowed it
Repression- a memory is pushed out of reach, because a
person does not want to remember
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38. Retention of Learning
Praise Stimulates Remembering
Responses that gives a pleasurable return tends to be repeated
Recall is promoted by Association
Information or actions, need to be associated with something
to be learned
Favorable Attitudes Aid Retention
People learn and remember only what they wish to know
Learning with all senses is most effective
A fuller understanding and greater chance of recall is
achieved when a person uses all senses
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39. Retention of Learning
Meaningful Repetition Aids Recall
3 to 4 repetitions provide the maximum effect
Students learn the most in the first 10-15 minutes
Mnemonics
A pattern of letters, ideas, visual images or associations
to assist in remember information
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40. Transfer of Learning
Transfer of Learning is broadly defined as the ability to
apply knowledge or procedures learned in one context
to a new context
Learning occurs more quickly and the learner develops
a deeper understanding of the task if he or she brings
some knowledge or skill from previous learning.
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41. Transfer of Learning
Habit Formation
The formation of correct habit patterns from the
beginning of any learning process is essential to further
learning and for correct performance after the
completion of training
How understanding affects Memory
The ability to remember is greatly affected by the level of
understanding of what has been learned
Remembering during Training
Remembering what is learned on a day-to-day basis is
the first challenge students must meet.
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42. Transfer of Learning
Remembering After Training
Continued practice of knowledge and skill is the only
way to retain what they learned
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Editor's Notes
Human’s construct a unique mental image by combining preexisting information with the information received from sense organs.
Go more indepth
Need more on cognitive
Cognitive Stage- the student memorizes steps to a procedure. The instructor is introducing new knowledge to the student
Review pages 2-23 to 2-32
The student has to be able to put all their learning together.In the beginning stages we will teach the students task individually, but as they become better in their flying ability, we have to teach them to multitask. We also need to introduce distractions and interruptions during the training.
Ways to practice positive feedback are to praise incremental successes during training. Relating daily accomplishments to lesson objectives, and commenting favorably on student progress and level ability.
A key limitation of STM is that it takes 5-10 seconds to properly code information and if the coding process is interrupted, that information is easily lost since it is only store for 30 seconds.
Instructors need to make certain that the student’s learning is readily available for recall.Teach thoroughly and with meaning.
Remembering during training. The first threat to newly acquired knowledge is a lack of frequent usage in the past. The second threat to newly acquired knowledge is a lack of understanding that might help the student in recalling the information.
