Leaving Certificate Revision Core 2 – Regional Geography

Short Questions You must generally be able to match up regions to their examples Therefore here you must be able to distinguish between different types of regions E.g. Dublin = Core Dun Laoghaire – Rathdown = Administrative BMW = Socio – Economic > Peripheral

You must generally be able to match up regions to their examples

Therefore here you must be able to distinguish between different types of regions

E.g. Dublin = Core

Dun Laoghaire – Rathdown = Administrative

BMW = Socio – Economic > Peripheral

2008, q.3

2007, q.5

Concept of a Region A region is an area with a characteristic (or characteristics) that sets it apart from other areas, making it distinctive or unique in some way. The edges of regions often overlap and these share characteristics found in neighbouring regions. People may move between regions brining their way of life with them and introducing it to the people of their adopted region. ‘Unity within Diversity’

A region is an area with a characteristic (or characteristics) that sets it apart from other areas, making it distinctive or unique in some way. The edges of regions often overlap and these share characteristics found in neighbouring regions. People may move between regions brining their way of life with them and introducing it to the people of their adopted region. ‘Unity within Diversity’

Types of Regions

2008, q1 A > Sketch map A. IRISH REGIONS In your answer book draw an outline map of Ireland. On it show and name the following: (i) Any one Irish region that you have studied. (ii) One major urban centre in the region. (iii) One major routeway in the region. (iv) One major feature of the physical landscape of the region. [20m]

A. IRISH REGIONS

In your answer book draw an outline map of Ireland. On it show and name the following:

(i) Any one Irish region that you have studied.

(ii) One major urban centre in the region.

(iii) One major routeway in the region.

(iv) One major feature of the physical landscape of the region.

[20m]

2008, q1 A > Sketch map Map outline = 4 marks Showing and naming region = 2 + 2 graded Showing and naming urban centre = 2 + 2 g Showing and naming routeway = 2 + 2 g Showing and naming feature of physical landscape = 2 + 2 g

Map outline = 4 marks

Showing and naming region = 2 + 2 graded

Showing and naming urban centre = 2 + 2 g

Showing and naming routeway = 2 + 2 g

Showing and naming feature of physical landscape = 2 + 2 g

Long Questions In regional geography long questions, you are expected to able to tie in the following aspects to any answer as long as its relevant: Physical Processes Economic Processes Human Processes By tying in these processes to your answer you will achieve marks for cohesion.

In regional geography long questions, you are expected to able to tie in the following aspects to any answer as long as its relevant:

Physical Processes

Economic Processes

Human Processes

By tying in these processes to your answer you will achieve marks for cohesion.

Long Questions For regional geography, you must know the following in detail: 2 contrasting Irish regions: BMW + GDA 2 contrasting European regions: Paris + Mezzogiorno A sub – continental region: Brazil Cultural region: Gaeltacht Region of Industrial Decline: Nord / Bilbao Region associated with religion: Northern Ireland Complex regions: Poland EU + Migration and Expansion

For regional geography, you must know the following in detail:

2 contrasting Irish regions: BMW + GDA

2 contrasting European regions: Paris + Mezzogiorno

A sub – continental region: Brazil

Cultural region: Gaeltacht

Region of Industrial Decline: Nord / Bilbao

Region associated with religion: Northern Ireland

Complex regions: Poland

EU + Migration and Expansion

Sample question: Examine a region you have studied which has been affected by boundary changes over time Poland is an excellent example of a country that has undergone many changes to its political boundaries. These changes have had a considerable impact on the ethnic composition of its population as outlined below Poland’s borders have changed many times throughout its history. After the 1 st WW, Poland was a much bigger country than it is today. Until the end of the 1930s, Poland had a variety of ethnic groups such as Catholic Poles and Jews, Armenians, Germans, Dutch, Ukrainians and Orthodox Christians. Its borders were east of its present location. In 1939, Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany. The Nazis killed about 3.5million of the Polish Jews and more than 1 million of the Polish Catholics. Devastated by war and with the population reduced from 35m to 23m, Poland became a Communist state under Russian influence.

Poland is an excellent example of a country that has undergone many changes to its political boundaries. These changes have had a considerable impact on the ethnic composition of its population as outlined below

Poland’s borders have changed many times throughout its history. After the 1 st WW, Poland was a much bigger country than it is today. Until the end of the 1930s, Poland had a variety of ethnic groups such as Catholic Poles and Jews, Armenians, Germans, Dutch, Ukrainians and Orthodox Christians. Its borders were east of its present location.

In 1939, Poland was invaded by Nazi Germany. The Nazis killed about 3.5million of the Polish Jews and more than 1 million of the Polish Catholics.

Devastated by war and with the population reduced from 35m to 23m, Poland became a Communist state under Russian influence.

Sample question: Examine a region you have studied which has been affected by boundary changes over time After WW2, new boundaries were designed for Central Europe by Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt (the leaders of Russia, Britain and the US) at the Yalta conference. The result was: 1. Poland lost a 3 rd of its pre WW2 land area, which was taken over by the Soviet Union. 2. The Allies (Russia, UK + US) gave Poland a large part of East Germany. WW2 dramatically reduced Poland’s former ethnic diversity. Massive migrations of Polish refugees occurred as they left Soviet and German owned lands. Many Germans left and moved west. Hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians were forced to leave Poland to settle in the Soviet Union. Most of the Jews who survived the holocaust emigrated to Israel or the US. As a result of this mass migration, modern Poland has a very small population of ethnic minorities – roughly 5% in total. This figure is made up of Germans (who live mostly in SW Poland), Belarussians (E Poland) and Ukrainians

After WW2, new boundaries were designed for Central Europe by Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt (the leaders of Russia, Britain and the US) at the Yalta conference.

The result was: 1. Poland lost a 3 rd of its pre WW2 land area, which was taken over by the Soviet Union. 2. The Allies (Russia, UK + US) gave Poland a large part of East Germany.

WW2 dramatically reduced Poland’s former ethnic diversity. Massive migrations of Polish refugees occurred as they left Soviet and German owned lands. Many Germans left and moved west.

Hundreds of thousands of Ukrainians were forced to leave Poland to settle in the Soviet Union. Most of the Jews who survived the holocaust emigrated to Israel or the US.

As a result of this mass migration, modern Poland has a very small population of ethnic minorities – roughly 5% in total. This figure is made up of Germans (who live mostly in SW Poland), Belarussians (E Poland) and Ukrainians

Sample question: Examine a region you have studied which has been affected by boundary changes over time Poland became quite isolated as a nation due to these boundary changes. As a result of emigration, the nation could not develop economically and due to its ties to Communism were left behind in terms of industrial development. The country has recently joined the EU, and while they have seen progress in terms of some MNCs setting up in Poland and the general standard of living rise, the Polish are still ironically seeing many people leave the country as the gates have been opened to work and live in better paying nations such as Ireland

Poland became quite isolated as a nation due to these boundary changes.

As a result of emigration, the nation could not develop economically and due to its ties to Communism were left behind in terms of industrial development.

The country has recently joined the EU, and while they have seen progress in terms of some MNCs setting up in Poland and the general standard of living rise, the Polish are still ironically seeing many people leave the country as the gates have been opened to work and live in better paying nations such as Ireland

Examine the impact the expansion the EU has had on newly admitted countries The Nice Treaty was ratified in 2002 and came into operation in 2003. It opened up the borders to many migrants from 12 new accession states, many of which had applied for accession in the wake of the collapse of communism. The issue of expansion had been the source of controversy for several years, as many argued that the cost of funding these countries would be too high. The criteria for accession was that a country was a democracy, had a constitution, had respect for human rights and agreed to economic and monetary union with EU members. However, after initial rejection by Ireland, the treaty was eventually ratified, and one of the countries that gained accession was Poland (> list other countries). I will now examine the short term impact of expansion on Poland.

The Nice Treaty was ratified in 2002 and came into operation in 2003.

It opened up the borders to many migrants from 12 new accession states, many of which had applied for accession in the wake of the collapse of communism.

The issue of expansion had been the source of controversy for several years, as many argued that the cost of funding these countries would be too high.

The criteria for accession was that a country was a democracy, had a constitution, had respect for human rights and agreed to economic and monetary union with EU members.

However, after initial rejection by Ireland, the treaty was eventually ratified, and one of the countries that gained accession was Poland (> list other countries). I will now examine the short term impact of expansion on Poland.

Examine the impact the expansion the EU has had on newly admitted countries Since its expansion to the EU, Poland has faced problems due to large scale emigration of its skilled workers. Up to 2 million Poles have left their country since the 2004 EU enlargement. The most popular destinations are Ireland and the UK. Of these 2m, the most numerous are young, dynamic, skilled and educated Poles. Normally they should easily find work in Poland but the attraction of higher wages and a more modern lifestyle available in other countries hard to resist. Graduates and specialists of all disciplines have left their country, leading to a brain drain. Sometimes the results of such large scale emigration becomes disastrous. In 2006, a doctor left Kielce, a city of 200,000. He was the only person in Poland experienced in clearing air passages of children with breathing problems. While his replacement was being trained, many lives were endangered.

Since its expansion to the EU, Poland has faced problems due to large scale emigration of its skilled workers.

Up to 2 million Poles have left their country since the 2004 EU enlargement.

The most popular destinations are Ireland and the UK.

Of these 2m, the most numerous are young, dynamic, skilled and educated Poles. Normally they should easily find work in Poland but the attraction of higher wages and a more modern lifestyle available in other countries hard to resist.

Graduates and specialists of all disciplines have left their country, leading to a brain drain. Sometimes the results of such large scale emigration becomes disastrous. In 2006, a doctor left Kielce, a city of 200,000. He was the only person in Poland experienced in clearing air passages of children with breathing problems. While his replacement was being trained, many lives were endangered.

Examine the impact the expansion the EU has had on newly admitted countries Although Polish business is booming, with exports growing on average 20% a year since the country’s entry into the EU, Polish companies face major difficulties finding new employees. From 2003 to 2007, the number of Poles in Ireland went from 4,000 to an estimated 150,000. The majority are under 35. Many are new graduates that are unwilling to work for on average 6 times less the fee they get in Ireland. While this invasion of young Poles helped the Irish economy for a couple of years, it negatively affected the economic development of Poland.

Although Polish business is booming, with exports growing on average 20% a year since the country’s entry into the EU, Polish companies face major difficulties finding new employees.

From 2003 to 2007, the number of Poles in Ireland went from 4,000 to an estimated 150,000. The majority are under 35. Many are new graduates that are unwilling to work for on average 6 times less the fee they get in Ireland.

While this invasion of young Poles helped the Irish economy for a couple of years, it negatively affected the economic development of Poland.

Concept of a Region 1. Physical: has unique physical characteristics. These can be climatic, or geomorphic > be able to describe these 2 in detail. 2. Administrative: regions controlled by local or central govt. agencies such as county councils or govt departments. 3. Cultural regions: Cultural regions: unique language or religious characteristics that define them 4. Urban regions: Urban / nodal or city regions inckude city and hinterland 5. Socio – economic regions: unique social and economic characteristics.

1. Physical: has unique physical characteristics. These can be climatic, or geomorphic > be able to describe these 2 in detail.

2. Administrative: regions controlled by local or central govt. agencies such as county councils or govt departments.

3. Cultural regions: Cultural regions: unique language or religious characteristics that define them

4. Urban regions: Urban / nodal or city regions inckude city and hinterland

5. Socio – economic regions: unique social and economic characteristics.

2008 q5C Describe the importance of culture in defining regions in a Continental / Sub – continental region you’ve studied. (30) Marking scheme Identifying aspect of culture: 2m Naming region: 2m Examination: 13 x SRPs

Describe the importance of culture in defining regions in a Continental / Sub – continental region you’ve studied. (30)

Marking scheme

Identifying aspect of culture: 2m

Naming region: 2m

Examination: 13 x SRPs

Cultural regions in Brazil Culture describes how people live their lives In Brazil it’s possible to identify 3 regions based on ethnic differences: 1) Black African area of NE, 2) Native Amerindians of rainforest 3) SE Brazil where majority are European descendants. Culturally different due to slavery + colonisation Portugal colonists > set up in SE, took slaves from Angola. After independence in 1882, further European migration was encouraged. White colonists operated huge sugar plantations in NE > needed large no. of workers> slave labour used. Salvador became the most prosperous and important slave centre in Brazil. Today, the population of Salvador is 80% black Before arrival of Portuguese, Brazil was populated by est. 6 m native Amerindians, e.g. Yanomami Conflict, death and disease has arisen since the European invasion

Culture describes how people live their lives

In Brazil it’s possible to identify 3 regions based on ethnic differences: 1) Black African area of NE, 2) Native Amerindians of rainforest 3) SE Brazil where majority are European descendants.

Culturally different due to slavery + colonisation

Portugal colonists > set up in SE, took slaves from Angola.

After independence in 1882, further European migration was encouraged.

White colonists operated huge sugar plantations in NE > needed large no. of workers> slave labour used.

Salvador became the most prosperous and important slave centre in Brazil. Today, the population of Salvador is 80% black

Before arrival of Portuguese, Brazil was populated by est. 6 m native Amerindians, e.g. Yanomami

Conflict, death and disease has arisen since the European invasion

Cultural regions, 2006, q5C Culture is an important factor in defining some regions. Examine the above statement with reference to any region you have studied. (30m) Name aspect of culture: 2m Name region: 2m Examination 13 SRPs

Culture is an important factor in defining some regions. Examine the above statement with reference to any region you have studied. (30m)

Name aspect of culture: 2m

Name region: 2m

Examination 13 SRPs

Cultural regions in Belgium Define a cultural region. Belgium: 3 separate cultural regions> N. Belgium known as Flanders> Flemish > majority (60%) of Belgium’s population live there. S. Belgium > Wallonia > French, in SE border with Germany >: speak German. Flanders traditionally very conservative, with reliance on farming. Wallonia regarded as more liberal and wealthy > economy based on mining and steel. Language line exists between Flanders and Wallonia. Each region has separate govt., TV stations and newspapers. Road signs on either side are also monolingual. Only bilingual region occurs around city of Brussels in Flanders. Brussels is centre of Flemish parliament but is mainly French speaking. Flemish – speaking separatists want more political powers for their region. Recent poll (2007) showed 43% of Flemings want a separate and independent Flanders.

Define a cultural region.

Belgium: 3 separate cultural regions> N. Belgium known as Flanders> Flemish > majority (60%) of Belgium’s population live there.

S. Belgium > Wallonia > French, in SE border with Germany >: speak German. Flanders traditionally very conservative, with reliance on farming. Wallonia regarded as more liberal and wealthy > economy based on mining and steel.

Language line exists between Flanders and Wallonia.

Each region has separate govt., TV stations and newspapers.

Road signs on either side are also monolingual.

Only bilingual region occurs around city of Brussels in Flanders. Brussels is centre of Flemish parliament but is mainly French speaking.

Flemish – speaking separatists want more political powers for their region. Recent poll (2007) showed 43% of Flemings want a separate and independent Flanders.

City regions: 2006 Q 4C ‘ The boundaries of city regions have expanded over time’ Discuss this statement, with reference to 1 example you’ve studied Name example: 2m Refer to time: 1 SRP Discussion: 13 SRPs

‘ The boundaries of city regions have expanded over time’

Discuss this statement, with reference to 1 example you’ve studied

Name example: 2m

Refer to time: 1 SRP

Discussion: 13 SRPs

Growth of Dublin Boundaries of Dublin have expanded since 1950s Dublin region has experienced rapid growth due to rural – urban migration> urban sprawl Zone of influence now covers much of eastern region of Ireland rather than just Dublin city. Dublin is capital city + centre of govt. and offers thousands of civil service job opportunities Wide variety of educational and health care services. Very attractive for industry > communications have encouraged wide range of industries to locate there, e.g. food processing, light engineering and financial. Population of Dublin has grown rapidly. 1971 > 35.7% of Irish pop., now, over 1m and 46% of national pop. By 2020. In 1970s, to accommodate urban sprawl> 3 new towns built: Tallaght, Lucan / Clondalkin, Blanchardstown. 2007: Adamstown. Dublin continues to grow westward into Kildare + Meath.

Boundaries of Dublin have expanded since 1950s

Dublin region has experienced rapid growth due to rural – urban migration> urban sprawl Zone of influence now covers much of eastern region of Ireland rather than just Dublin city.

Dublin is capital city + centre of govt. and offers thousands of civil service job opportunities

Wide variety of educational and health care services.

Very attractive for industry > communications have encouraged wide range of industries to locate there, e.g. food processing, light engineering and financial.

Population of Dublin has grown rapidly. 1971 > 35.7% of Irish pop., now, over 1m and 46% of national pop. By 2020.

In 1970s, to accommodate urban sprawl> 3 new towns built: Tallaght, Lucan / Clondalkin, Blanchardstown. 2007: Adamstown.

Dublin continues to grow westward into Kildare + Meath.

Growth of a European region Paris > largest city in Europe with population of 10m Paris developed on an island, Ile de France, in River Seine > defensive location + bridging point. People moved for saftey and communications. Natural advantages > Paris lies at centre of fertile, limon covered soils. Region is most important cereal growing region in France > became a centre for employment. Paris is centre of govt. and provides thousands of civil service jobs. These advantages created rural – urban migration and Paris has a migrant population of 1.4 m +. Paris expected to have pop. Of 14m by 2050. Many migrants live in suburbs > urban sprawl.

Paris > largest city in Europe with population of 10m

Paris developed on an island, Ile de France, in River Seine > defensive location + bridging point. People moved for saftey and communications.

Natural advantages > Paris lies at centre of fertile, limon covered soils. Region is most important cereal growing region in France > became a centre for employment.

Paris is centre of govt. and provides thousands of civil service jobs.

These advantages created rural – urban migration and Paris has a migrant population of 1.4 m +. Paris expected to have pop. Of 14m by 2050. Many migrants live in suburbs > urban sprawl.

Growth of a European region Paris has social and economic problems because of its growth > include traffic congestion, social deprivation in poor suburbs, urban sprawl and inner city decline > to combat this, planners developed the Schema Directeur > to control growth of city, improve housing in suburbs, provide more recreational space and provide employment. 5 new towns built around the city. 1 of these St Quentin en Yvelines 30km SW of Paris, now houses 150,000 people and provides over 40,000 jobs > an important location for industry and services Still tension in Paris due to socio – economic inequality.

Paris has social and economic problems because of its growth > include traffic congestion, social deprivation in poor suburbs, urban sprawl and inner city decline > to combat this, planners developed the Schema Directeur > to control growth of city, improve housing in suburbs, provide more recreational space and provide employment.

5 new towns built around the city. 1 of these St Quentin en Yvelines 30km SW of Paris, now houses 150,000 people and provides over 40,000 jobs > an important location for industry and services

Still tension in Paris due to socio – economic inequality.

Urban regions: 2008, 4C Describe and explain the growth of 1 major urban area in a continental / sub continental region that you have studied. Marking scheme: Name region: 2m Urban area: 2m Examination: 13 SRPs

Describe and explain the growth of 1 major urban area in a continental / sub continental region that you have studied.

Marking scheme:

Name region: 2m

Urban area: 2m

Examination: 13 SRPs

Growth of Sao Paulo, Brazil Sao Paulo is a mega – city with a pop. of 27m + Largest and most important economic centre in Brazil. Grown rapidly since established in 16 th century by Portuguese missionaries. Began as village > now 23,000 km2 + 2 reasons for growth : 1) Rural – urban migration; millions of poor people from NE Brazil moved to Sao Paulo to find work + services Push factors from countryside > poverty , lack of work on new farms, lack of health + education services. Pull factors are availability of work at port, industries + services. 2) In – migration of European and Asian migrants > arrived because of state – sponsored advertising schemes > work in coffee trade. Investors also attracted because of business opportunities. Today 65% of urban growth in Sao Paulo due to in - migration

Sao Paulo is a mega – city with a pop. of 27m +

Largest and most important economic centre in Brazil.

Grown rapidly since established in 16 th century by Portuguese missionaries.

Began as village > now 23,000 km2 +

2 reasons for growth :

1) Rural – urban migration; millions of poor people from NE Brazil moved to Sao Paulo to find work + services Push factors from countryside > poverty , lack of work on new farms, lack of health + education services. Pull factors are availability of work at port, industries + services.

2) In – migration of European and Asian migrants > arrived because of state – sponsored advertising schemes > work in coffee trade. Investors also attracted because of business opportunities. Today 65% of urban growth in Sao Paulo due to in - migration

Growth of Sao Paulo, Brazil Economy of SP also based o services > most important financial and educational centre in Brazil Growth of SP has caused problems > growth of favelas > SP has 1,600 favelas. Millions of people build their own shelters and favelas lack clean water, sewerage and electricity. Another problem is traffic congestion and air pollution > 5 million + cars in the city. To avoid delay, most wealthy business people use helicopters to move around > SP highest no. of helipads in world.

Economy of SP also based o services > most important financial and educational centre in Brazil

Growth of SP has caused problems > growth of favelas > SP has 1,600 favelas. Millions of people build their own shelters and favelas lack clean water, sewerage and electricity.

Another problem is traffic congestion and air pollution > 5 million + cars in the city. To avoid delay, most wealthy business people use helicopters to move around > SP highest no. of helipads in world.

BMW notes BMW: Border, Midlands, West Region The interaction of physical, economic and human processes in BMW has made it economically disadvantaged. BMW is a socio – economic region. It is marginalised, disadvantaged, less prosperous. BMW is a former Objective 1 region, i.e. an area that has been classified by the EU as less prosperous, and qualifies for EU funding.

BMW: Border, Midlands, West Region

The interaction of physical, economic and human processes in BMW has made it economically disadvantaged.

BMW is a socio – economic region. It is marginalised, disadvantaged, less prosperous.

BMW is a former Objective 1 region, i.e. an area that has been classified by the EU as less prosperous, and qualifies for EU funding.

Characteristics: Incomes in BMW are 75 % of EU average. High dependency on farming. 65%+ of population live in rural areas. Population density low, -40 per square km. Few towns have population 5000+ High rates of outward migration Farm income 50% of East 68% of farm income derived from EU Low manufacturing levels Low investment in infrastructure and services

Characteristics:

Incomes in BMW are 75 % of EU average.

High dependency on farming.

65%+ of population live in rural areas.

Population density low, -40 per square km.

Few towns have population 5000+

High rates of outward migration

Farm income 50% of East

68% of farm income derived from EU

Low manufacturing levels

Low investment in infrastructure and services

Physical Processes High precipitation (2000mm pa) Limited sunshine – 2 of 3 days cloudy Average summer temps 15 – 17 degrees Average winter temps 4 – 5 degrees Moderate yearly temp range of 11 degrees Changeable climate due to Atlantic’s influence Western areas dominated by uplands > Caledonian folds Eastern parts low, permeable limestone Soil cover is limited due to glacial erosion Extensive boglands, poorly drained areas Shannon Basin prone to flooding Soils heavily leached due to heavy rainfall Soils in mountains mainly peat and peat gleys Lowland soils mainly shallow brown earths weathered from glacial drift

Physical Processes

High precipitation (2000mm pa)

Limited sunshine – 2 of 3 days cloudy

Average summer temps 15 – 17 degrees

Average winter temps 4 – 5 degrees

Moderate yearly temp range of 11 degrees

Changeable climate due to Atlantic’s influence

Western areas dominated by uplands > Caledonian folds

Eastern parts low, permeable limestone

Soil cover is limited due to glacial erosion

Extensive boglands, poorly drained areas

Shannon Basin prone to flooding

Soils heavily leached due to heavy rainfall

Soils in mountains mainly peat and peat gleys

Lowland soils mainly shallow brown earths weathered from glacial drift

Economic Processes Primary Pattern of agriculture shows influence of physical environment which limit the development of agriculture. Farming extensive and poorly mechanised, few tillage farms, steep slopes restrict use of machinery Small farms, 30% less than 10 hectares, incomes low because of infertile soils Sheep reared on mountains and infertile lowlands Beef cattle grazed on lowlands, where shallow brown earths give rise to good pastureland Government planning has greatly influenced development of forestry. Reafforestation taken place on land unsuitable for farming. Coniferous trees like pine and spruce survive well in upland areas. Farmers encouraged to combine farming with forestry through grants. Forestry is a viable alternative in remote areas.

Economic Processes

Primary

Pattern of agriculture shows influence of physical environment which limit the development of agriculture.

Farming extensive and poorly mechanised, few tillage farms, steep slopes restrict use of machinery

Small farms, 30% less than 10 hectares, incomes low because of infertile soils

Sheep reared on mountains and infertile lowlands

Beef cattle grazed on lowlands, where shallow brown earths give rise to good pastureland

Government planning has greatly influenced development of forestry.

Reafforestation taken place on land unsuitable for farming. Coniferous trees like pine and spruce survive well in upland areas.

Farmers encouraged to combine farming with forestry through grants. Forestry is a viable alternative in remote areas.

In areas of large – scale reafforestation, trees replace land used for housing. This changes population distribution in region and has reduced population densities. NDP focuses on developing economic activities such as forestry in peripheral regions, as it provides jobs in timber industry, tourism and environment. Fishing in BMW related to shape of the coastline, as indented nature provide sheltered harbours for boats and suitable for aquaculture. Warm North Atlantic Drift ensures mixing of nutrients, and keeps ports ice-free Shallow waters of continental shelf encourage growth of plankton Ports on west coast offer access to extensive fishing grounds of Atlantc. NDP has invested in these ports Development of inland fishing has contributed to tourism, e.g. Shannon. This provides employment and reduces out - migration

In areas of large – scale reafforestation, trees replace land used for housing. This changes population distribution in region and has reduced population densities.

NDP focuses on developing economic activities such as forestry in peripheral regions, as it provides jobs in timber industry, tourism and environment.

Fishing in BMW related to shape of the coastline, as indented nature provide sheltered harbours for boats and suitable for aquaculture.

Warm North Atlantic Drift ensures mixing of nutrients, and keeps ports ice-free

Shallow waters of continental shelf encourage growth of plankton

Ports on west coast offer access to extensive fishing grounds of Atlantc. NDP has invested in these ports

Development of inland fishing has contributed to tourism, e.g. Shannon. This provides employment and reduces out - migration

Secondary Manufacturing in the region is les well – developed than GDA due to poor infrastructure. Poor infrastructure is caused by upland nature and poor drainage, lack of investment. Telecommunications poorly developed Peripheral location attracts lower levels of investment in manufacturing than GDA Region lacks a strong urban base from which manufacturing companies draw a skilled labour supply The NSS, as part of NDP focussed on attracting future growth through gateways and hubs, driving development in the area. Gateways are always and Sligo. Hubs are Tuam, Ballina / Castlebar. Growth of 3 rd level colleges in West has attracted advanced – technology companies such as biomedical device manufacturers, e.g. Castlebar and Galway Governement has set up Udaras na Gaeltachta to develop industries in Gaeltacht areas, with incentives and grants given

Secondary

Manufacturing in the region is les well – developed than GDA due to poor infrastructure. Poor infrastructure is caused by upland nature and poor drainage, lack of investment. Telecommunications poorly developed

Peripheral location attracts lower levels of investment in manufacturing than GDA

Region lacks a strong urban base from which manufacturing companies draw a skilled labour supply

The NSS, as part of NDP focussed on attracting future growth through gateways and hubs, driving development in the area. Gateways are always and Sligo. Hubs are Tuam, Ballina / Castlebar.

Growth of 3 rd level colleges in West has attracted advanced – technology companies such as biomedical device manufacturers, e.g. Castlebar and Galway

Governement has set up Udaras na Gaeltachta to develop industries in Gaeltacht areas, with incentives and grants given

Tertiary Development of tertiary sector in West influenced by government planning and physical and cultural landscape. Relatively low level of investment in services. Low population density and government neglect accounts for this. Investment in transport is low, e.g. in 2005 Galway City was given 1/7 th of money allocated to Fingal Decentralisation of public services to BMW expected to put more money in area. Establishment of 3 rd level colleges like Sligo IT provides services that attract investment NDP has targeted development of services. Funding has been provided for heritage and environmental programmes. Tourism now targeted for investment under NDP, they aim to increase tourists visiting the region by 15%, attracting them to physical landscape and the unique culture of the area.

Tertiary

Development of tertiary sector in West influenced by government planning and physical and cultural landscape.

Relatively low level of investment in services. Low population density and government neglect accounts for this.

Investment in transport is low, e.g. in 2005 Galway City was given 1/7 th of money allocated to Fingal

Decentralisation of public services to BMW expected to put more money in area.

Establishment of 3 rd level colleges like Sligo IT provides services that attract investment

NDP has targeted development of services. Funding has been provided for heritage and environmental programmes.

Tourism now targeted for investment under NDP, they aim to increase tourists visiting the region by 15%, attracting them to physical landscape and the unique culture of the area.

GDA: Greater Dublin Area GDA is the core socio – economic region in Ireland. Il includes Dublin city and county. It is considered to be developed, wealthy, prosperous, advantaged and core. Characteristics Dublin is largest urban centre with population of over 1.2 million It has a modern industrial sector and an expanding tertiary sector. More than 1/3 of all jobs in foreign – owned manufacturing and financial services are in Dublin Dublin is the centre of administration and capital of Ireland Dublin is Ireland’s busiest port and nodal point of road rail and air networks Dublin has many problems with urban sprawl, traffic, housing shortages and pressure on health services Rural Dublin has high farming productivity

GDA: Greater Dublin Area

GDA is the core socio – economic region in Ireland. Il includes Dublin city and county. It is considered to be developed, wealthy, prosperous, advantaged and core.

Characteristics

Dublin is largest urban centre with population of over 1.2 million

It has a modern industrial sector and an expanding tertiary sector.

More than 1/3 of all jobs in foreign – owned manufacturing and financial services are in Dublin

Dublin is the centre of administration and capital of Ireland

Dublin is Ireland’s busiest port and nodal point of road rail and air networks

Dublin has many problems with urban sprawl, traffic, housing shortages and pressure on health services

Rural Dublin has high farming productivity

Physical Processes Climate of GDA is cool temperate oceanic. Less cloudy, sunny and dry than West. Precipitation levels more evenly distributed than BMW. At 750mm, about half of West. Average sunshine levels twice those of BMW Winters mild, averaging 5 degrees, summers warm, averaging 16 degrees. Frost less frequent along coast Climate is changeable due to frequency of depressions GDA’s relief is undulating lowland formed on limestone bedrock South is sheltered by Wicklow Mountains Drained by Liffey, Dodder and Tolka Dominant soil type fertile brown earth, which are humus – rich. Aggradation, i.e. river deposition has produced fertile alluvium soils Soils on coast are light and easily worked.

Physical Processes

Climate of GDA is cool temperate oceanic. Less cloudy, sunny and dry than West.

Precipitation levels more evenly distributed than BMW. At 750mm, about half of West.

Average sunshine levels twice those of BMW

Winters mild, averaging 5 degrees, summers warm, averaging 16 degrees. Frost less frequent along coast

Climate is changeable due to frequency of depressions

GDA’s relief is undulating lowland formed on limestone bedrock

South is sheltered by Wicklow Mountains

Drained by Liffey, Dodder and Tolka

Dominant soil type fertile brown earth, which are humus – rich.

Aggradation, i.e. river deposition has produced fertile alluvium soils

Soils on coast are light and easily worked.

Economic Processes Primary Average farm income 40% above national income. Farming is intensive and highly mechanised on lowland. Deep fertile soils yield high outputs of cereals such as wheat and barley Higher % of younger farmers in GDA than BMW. Well – educated workforce has modern, scientific approach to farming Arable and beef fattening sectors are highly productive due to physical conditions Horticulture is highly profitable in light, sandy soils of North Dublin. Large, urban market nearby demands daily delivery of fresh produce

Economic Processes

Primary

Average farm income 40% above national income.

Farming is intensive and highly mechanised on lowland. Deep fertile soils yield high outputs of cereals such as wheat and barley

Higher % of younger farmers in GDA than BMW. Well – educated workforce has modern, scientific approach to farming

Arable and beef fattening sectors are highly productive due to physical conditions

Horticulture is highly profitable in light, sandy soils of North Dublin. Large, urban market nearby demands daily delivery of fresh produce

Secondary GDA is highly developed manufacturing region with long tradition. 40% of country’s manufacturing workforce employed there. Government investment, skilled labour force and availability of raw materials contribute to this GDA is focus of road, rail, sea and air networks in Ireland. Investment in M50 and Dublin Port is high As a result of government investment, region is an established centre for MNCs. Attracted 60% of all new industries in ‘90s. MNCs such as Microsoft and CRH Setting up of many industrial estates and business parks to the West of city has attracted industry to Tallaght, Blanchardstown and Clondalkin Pharmaceutical and software industries depend on availability of an educated, highly skilled workforce, such as in GDA Range of local raw materials is available for industries

Secondary

GDA is highly developed manufacturing region with long tradition. 40% of country’s manufacturing workforce employed there. Government investment, skilled labour force and availability of raw materials contribute to this

GDA is focus of road, rail, sea and air networks in Ireland. Investment in M50 and Dublin Port is high

As a result of government investment, region is an established centre for MNCs. Attracted 60% of all new industries in ‘90s. MNCs such as Microsoft and CRH

Setting up of many industrial estates and business parks to the West of city has attracted industry to Tallaght, Blanchardstown and Clondalkin

Pharmaceutical and software industries depend on availability of an educated, highly skilled workforce, such as in GDA

Range of local raw materials is available for industries

Tertiary Tertiary sector well developed in GDA. Transport, tourism and financial services main branches of this sector in the region. Factors that explain the dominance of GDA as service centre are: Government policy, which centralised services in the capital. As the seat of government, Dublin is the decision – making centre As Ireland’s nodal point, Dublin transport has attracted greatest levels of investment in the country With a population of over 1.2 million, Dublin is the main education centre

Tertiary

Tertiary sector well developed in GDA. Transport, tourism and financial services main branches of this sector in the region. Factors that explain the dominance of GDA as service centre are:

Government policy, which centralised services in the capital. As the seat of government, Dublin is the decision – making centre

As Ireland’s nodal point, Dublin transport has attracted greatest levels of investment in the country

With a population of over 1.2 million, Dublin is the main education centre

1. Transport 50% of all Irish trade passes through Dublin port, an increase of 450% in last 40 years Public transport network serves city and country Dublin Airport handles over 17 million passengers per year and is a major employer

1. Transport

50% of all Irish trade passes through Dublin port, an increase of 450% in last 40 years

Public transport network serves city and country

Dublin Airport handles over 17 million passengers per year and is a major employer

2. Tourism Dublin attracts 27% of all visitors to the country. Tourists spend €1 billion per year in Dublin The government have invested in leisure facilities such as Croke Park and in cultural attractions as the National Museum There are many shopping thoroughfares in Dublin City which are accessible, pedestrianised and attractive Dublin is very accessible because of its transport links A very successful marketing campaign at home and abroad has attracted tourists

2. Tourism

Dublin attracts 27% of all visitors to the country.

Tourists spend €1 billion per year in Dublin

The government have invested in leisure facilities such as Croke Park and in cultural attractions as the National Museum

There are many shopping thoroughfares in Dublin City which are accessible, pedestrianised and attractive

Dublin is very accessible because of its transport links

A very successful marketing campaign at home and abroad has attracted tourists

3. Financial Services The IFSC was set up by the Irish Government in 1987, they had identified the growth potential of the financial services sector Dublin has a well - developed financial infrastructure, a sophisticated internal and international communications system and a young and highly educated workforce IFSC is a vibrant part of the Irish economy, as it employs over 10,700 people Scale of the centre has attracted other companies, e.g. half of world’s top 50 banks and half of top 20 insurance companies Sophisticated support network (shared service centres, software development) has also developed around IFSC

3. Financial Services

The IFSC was set up by the Irish Government in 1987, they had identified the growth potential of the financial services sector

Dublin has a well - developed financial infrastructure, a sophisticated internal and international communications system and a young and highly educated workforce

IFSC is a vibrant part of the Irish economy, as it employs over 10,700 people

Scale of the centre has attracted other companies, e.g. half of world’s top 50 banks and half of top 20 insurance companies

Sophisticated support network (shared service centres, software development) has also developed around IFSC

Human Processes GDA is an area of in – migration and has a high birth rate In – migration: as most important manufacturing and service centre, GDA has attracted many migrants from home and abroad Cultural diversity: In recent times, GDA has become more culturally diverse. Approx. 10% of region’s population is foreign – national. This has led to tension and conflict at times Urban Development Schemes: urban growth gives rise to many problems, so a development plan has been drawn up to manage the physical, social and economic development of the region

Human Processes

GDA is an area of in – migration and has a high birth rate

In – migration: as most important manufacturing and service centre, GDA has attracted many migrants from home and abroad

Cultural diversity: In recent times, GDA has become more culturally diverse. Approx. 10% of region’s population is foreign – national. This has led to tension and conflict at times

Urban Development Schemes: urban growth gives rise to many problems, so a development plan has been drawn up to manage the physical, social and economic development of the region

1. Paris Basin Paris Basin is a distinctive core region because of its geology, soils, agricultural productivity, thriving economy and city of Paris. Paris > low – lying, variety of fertile soils. Each soil associated with particular type of agriculture. Ile de France contains 20% of the population. PB is a centre of in-migration, and is culturally mixed, also the largest manufacturing centre in France with well developed transport network. Physical Characteristics PB is huge down-fold (syncline) Biggest scarp is called Falaise de France. Each type of rock has produced different soils, creating the different pays. In centre of basin > Ile de France > fertile limon soils. 3 rivers flow across region, Seine, Somme + Loire 3 climates in the region : maritime in the west, similar to Ireland’s Eastern part of the region is continental, hot summers, cold winters Between these 2, transitional climate

1. Paris Basin

Paris Basin is a distinctive core region because of its geology, soils, agricultural productivity, thriving economy and city of Paris.

Paris > low – lying, variety of fertile soils. Each soil associated with particular type of agriculture. Ile de France contains 20% of the population. PB is a centre of in-migration, and is culturally mixed, also the largest manufacturing centre in France with well developed transport network.

Physical Characteristics

PB is huge down-fold (syncline)

Biggest scarp is called Falaise de France.

Each type of rock has produced different soils, creating the different pays.

In centre of basin > Ile de France > fertile limon soils.

3 rivers flow across region, Seine, Somme + Loire

3 climates in the region : maritime in the west, similar to Ireland’s

Eastern part of the region is continental, hot summers, cold winters

Between these 2, transitional climate

Primary Activities Primary activities influenced by the climate. Agriculture: limon soil = wheat, barley production. Rainfall + long hours of sunshine helps crop growth. Alluvial soils near Seine also favourable. Farms are big + highly mechanised Revise farm production in 2>3 pays, on p.322 Energy production Energy production is high in the region, France has small oil reserves, however is 3 rd greatest oil-consuming European country, gas brought by pipeline from Aquitaine + Netherlands. France depends heavily on Nuclear energy > makes up 75% of French electricity.

Primary Activities

Primary activities influenced by the climate.

Agriculture: limon soil = wheat, barley production. Rainfall + long hours of sunshine helps crop growth. Alluvial soils near Seine also favourable. Farms are big + highly mechanised

Revise farm production in 2>3 pays, on p.322

Energy production

Energy production is high in the region, France has small oil reserves, however is 3 rd greatest oil-consuming European country, gas brought by pipeline from Aquitaine + Netherlands. France depends heavily on Nuclear energy > makes up 75% of French electricity.

Secondary Activities Communications provided by Seine + tributaries : natural transport network. Low – lying relief also allowed development of rail + road networks. Population of city over 12 million, PB contains 21 million. Food processing is a major industry in the region, because of wide variety of raw materials. Paris is a major industrial centre, containing 20%+ of French workforce. CBD is North of the river with busy offices, small factories + fashionable shops. Car manufacturers + heavy steel manufacturing also located in the city.

Secondary Activities

Communications provided by Seine + tributaries : natural transport network.

Low – lying relief also allowed development of rail + road networks.

Population of city over 12 million, PB contains 21 million. Food processing is a major industry in the region, because of wide variety of raw materials. Paris is a major industrial centre, containing 20%+ of French workforce. CBD is North of the river with busy offices, small factories + fashionable shops. Car manufacturers + heavy steel manufacturing also located in the city.

Tertiary Activities Tourism v. important in PB, with wide variety of attractions, i.e. Disneyland, Reims cathedral, monuments in Paris city, ie Louvre, also tourists come to shop in high – street stores. Communications Paris has an excellent transport network, helped by low – lying topography. French transport network radiates out from Paris > TGV. Paris has metro, rail, air, road + river services. Human Processes Approx. 1.2 million immigrants live in Paris > leads to conflict / tension / crime Immigrants come from N+W. Africa, China + E. Europe

Tertiary Activities

Tourism v. important in PB, with wide variety of attractions, i.e. Disneyland, Reims cathedral, monuments in Paris city, ie Louvre, also tourists come to shop in high – street stores.

Communications

Paris has an excellent transport network, helped by low – lying topography. French transport network radiates out from Paris > TGV. Paris has metro, rail, air, road + river services.

Human Processes

Approx. 1.2 million immigrants live in Paris > leads to conflict / tension / crime

Immigrants come from N+W. Africa, China + E. Europe

2. Mezzogiorno South of Italy / Mezzogiorno is peripheral / less developed region. Accounts for 40% of land but only 35% of population Unemployment rates are high (up to 20%) GDP less than 75% of EU average. Despite this Italy ranked 17 th out of 177 countries in 2006 Un HDI report Physical Characteristics Mediterranean climate > summers hot, sunny , dry, influenced by Azores high pressure belt. Also influenced by NE trade winds, that are hot + dry. Winters mild + moist, rarely below 11C. Rainfall averages btwn 500mm + 900mm. Convectional rainfall creates thunderstorms + mudslides. South affected by Sirocco. Relief + Drainage Apennines dominate the landscape. 85% of region classed as upland. Highest point is 2,015m at Gran Sasso. 2 main lowland areas, Naples- Salerno + Puglia lowlands. Coastal lowlands mainly marshy > health hazard as well as useless for farming. Region tectnically active, earthquakes + volcanoes near Vesuvius, Mt. Etna, Stroboli. Few rivers, because area contains permeable limestone, underground caves at Castellana. Soils Poor soils, due to steep slopes of Appenines. Most fertile on flanks of volcanoes at Campania + Sicily + river valleys > alluvium from floodlains of Volturno + Ofanto. Terra Rossa soils cover much of landscape especially in South > subject to erosion

2. Mezzogiorno

South of Italy / Mezzogiorno is peripheral / less developed region.

Accounts for 40% of land but only 35% of population

Unemployment rates are high (up to 20%)

GDP less than 75% of EU average.

Despite this Italy ranked 17 th out of 177 countries in 2006 Un HDI report

Physical Characteristics

Mediterranean climate > summers hot, sunny , dry, influenced by Azores high pressure belt. Also influenced by NE trade winds, that are hot + dry.

Winters mild + moist, rarely below 11C. Rainfall averages btwn 500mm + 900mm. Convectional rainfall creates thunderstorms + mudslides. South affected by Sirocco.

Relief + Drainage

Apennines dominate the landscape. 85% of region classed as upland. Highest point is 2,015m at Gran Sasso. 2 main lowland areas, Naples- Salerno + Puglia lowlands. Coastal lowlands mainly marshy > health hazard as well as useless for farming. Region tectnically active, earthquakes + volcanoes near Vesuvius, Mt. Etna, Stroboli. Few rivers, because area contains permeable limestone, underground caves at Castellana.

Soils

Poor soils, due to steep slopes of Appenines. Most fertile on flanks of volcanoes at Campania + Sicily + river valleys > alluvium from floodlains of Volturno + Ofanto. Terra Rossa soils cover much of landscape especially in South > subject to erosion

Primary Activities Land ownership system created problems. Absentee landlords rented out small plots of land to tenant farmers, where labourers called braccianti worked the land. Estates underdeveloped, tenants put little effort into improving soils or output, giving low yields but taking up huge areas of land. 70% of minifundia smaller than 3 hectares in size > overcropped + overgrazed > easily eroded. Cassa scheme has made farms much more productive, change to high value produce, incomes higher now. Fertilisers, reclamation + irrigation have improved productivity. Sheep + goats graze higher mountains, vines grown on lower slopes. Climate and soil perfect for olive growing, as it is drought resistant. Commercial forestry not an important activity because of continuous deforestation. Mediterranean not a rich fishing ground as large open waters of Atlantic coasts. Most coastal towns have small fishing ports, however the industry is facing problems due to high salinity + pollution. The Mezzogiorno is limited in mineral wealth > natural gas at Basilicata + oil gas, sulphur and potash found near Siracusa, bulk of electricity produced in thermal power stations. No coal deposits.

Primary Activities

Land ownership system created problems. Absentee landlords rented out small plots of land to tenant farmers, where labourers called braccianti worked the land. Estates underdeveloped, tenants put little effort into improving soils or output, giving low yields but taking up huge areas of land. 70% of minifundia smaller than 3 hectares in size > overcropped + overgrazed > easily eroded.

Cassa scheme has made farms much more productive, change to high value produce, incomes higher now. Fertilisers, reclamation + irrigation have improved productivity. Sheep + goats graze higher mountains, vines grown on lower slopes. Climate and soil perfect for olive growing, as it is drought resistant.

Commercial forestry not an important activity because of continuous deforestation.

Mediterranean not a rich fishing ground as large open waters of Atlantic coasts. Most coastal towns have small fishing ports, however the industry is facing problems due to high salinity + pollution.

The Mezzogiorno is limited in mineral wealth > natural gas at Basilicata + oil gas, sulphur and potash found near Siracusa, bulk of electricity produced in thermal power stations. No coal deposits.

Secondary Economic Activities Industry before 1950 unattractive because of unskilled + uneducated workforce, poor local market, underdeveloped agricultural sector, lack of resources, poor transport, peripheral location + emigration. Region continues to be economically disadvantaged but Cassa tried encourage social + economic development using grants, loans + tax incentives > created 300,00 jobs in new industries. Under Cassa, 4 industrial poles created: Bari-Brindisi-Taranto triangle, Naples area, Latina-Frosinone area, Augusta-Siracusa area. Most successful heavy industry is steelmaker Finsider, which opened steelworks in 1964.

Secondary Economic Activities

Industry before 1950 unattractive because of unskilled + uneducated workforce, poor local market, underdeveloped agricultural sector, lack of resources, poor transport, peripheral location + emigration.

Region continues to be economically disadvantaged but Cassa tried encourage social + economic development using grants, loans + tax incentives > created 300,00 jobs in new industries.

Under Cassa, 4 industrial poles created: Bari-Brindisi-Taranto triangle, Naples area, Latina-Frosinone area, Augusta-Siracusa area.

Most successful heavy industry is steelmaker Finsider, which opened steelworks in 1964.

Tertiary Economic Activities Mezzogiorno region dependent on tourism. Climate is hot, dry > average 29C in summer, with mountain peaks covered in snow in winter > year round tourism. Variety of unspoilt, natural and beautiful landscapes – Amalfi coast, Naples. Ancient city of Pompeii + areas of historical interest. Relaxed + family – oriented culture. Strong Greek + Roman influence. Human Processes Italy population: 58 million Mezzogiorno melting pot of Greek, Roman, Arab civilisations Family size declining with declining influence of Catholic Church Region still faces problems with illegal immigration, corruption, out – migration, high unemployment, slow economic growth, low incomes, low literacy, high dependency ratio, inadequate heath care Region is an area of in – migration as it is a gateway to EU from N. Africa and former Yugoslavia . lads to conflict, tension , crime

Tertiary Economic Activities

Mezzogiorno region dependent on tourism.

Climate is hot, dry > average 29C in summer, with mountain peaks covered in snow in winter > year round tourism. Variety of unspoilt, natural and beautiful landscapes – Amalfi coast, Naples. Ancient city of Pompeii + areas of historical interest. Relaxed + family – oriented culture. Strong Greek + Roman influence.

Human Processes

Italy population: 58 million

Mezzogiorno melting pot of Greek, Roman, Arab civilisations

Family size declining with declining influence of Catholic Church

Region still faces problems with illegal immigration, corruption, out – migration, high unemployment, slow economic growth, low incomes, low literacy, high dependency ratio, inadequate heath care

Region is an area of in – migration as it is a gateway to EU from N. Africa and former Yugoslavia . lads to conflict, tension , crime

The Cassa Per Il Mezzogiorno (The Cassa Scheme) Cassascheme was set up to reduce the economic imbalance between North and South in 1950. Sucesses: Broke up latifundia and minifundia estates Invested in technology and mechanistaion of farming Co-ops set up to purchase produce in bulk Land reclaimed and land irrigated as well as Autostrada del Sole > improving transport services Farmers trained to farm more efficiently New villages and towns built with important services Problems: Increased mechanisation has not provided many new jobs Some land too small to make farms Mafia still influential in Sicily > hindered government efforts Only 10% of region affected by land reform Overgrazing, drought, soil erosion still cause problems

The Cassa Per Il Mezzogiorno (The Cassa Scheme)

Cassascheme was set up to reduce the economic imbalance between North and South in 1950.

Sucesses:

Broke up latifundia and minifundia estates

Invested in technology and mechanistaion of farming

Co-ops set up to purchase produce in bulk

Land reclaimed and land irrigated as well as Autostrada del Sole > improving transport services

Farmers trained to farm more efficiently

New villages and towns built with important services

Problems:

Increased mechanisation has not provided many new jobs

Some land too small to make farms

Mafia still influential in Sicily > hindered government efforts

Only 10% of region affected by land reform

Overgrazing, drought, soil erosion still cause problems

Cassa scheme promoted industry and tourism in the region. With funding of €2.3 billion btwn 1965 & 1970, they promoted industrial location by: Providing funding to lending agencies financing small and medium sized enterprises Giving grants + tax incentives to companies who relocated there Providing tax exemptions and transport subsidies Funding vocational training Offering cheaper land Developing natural gas deposits Introducing laws where public agencies had to invest there Selecting growth centres 15% of Cassa’s funding went into tourism > more than 25 regions for tourism developed by providing grants to upgrade + build accommodation + facilities. Cassa scheme had limited success because: Most factories capital – intensive, machinery did the work Most factory workers still involved in farming Larger industries failed to attract other industries Creation of jobs did not match loss of jobs Out – migration continued Not enough proper training Town planning and industrial developments not integrated Over – reliance on state investment Privatisation meant many state – owned factories moved North

Cassa scheme promoted industry and tourism in the region. With funding of €2.3 billion btwn 1965 & 1970, they promoted industrial location by:

Providing funding to lending agencies financing small and medium sized enterprises

Giving grants + tax incentives to companies who relocated there

Providing tax exemptions and transport subsidies

Funding vocational training

Offering cheaper land

Developing natural gas deposits

Introducing laws where public agencies had to invest there

Selecting growth centres

15% of Cassa’s funding went into tourism > more than 25 regions for tourism developed by providing grants to upgrade + build accommodation + facilities.

Cassa scheme had limited success because:

Most factories capital – intensive, machinery did the work

Most factory workers still involved in farming

Larger industries failed to attract other industries

Creation of jobs did not match loss of jobs

Out – migration continued

Not enough proper training

Town planning and industrial developments not integrated

Over – reliance on state investment

Privatisation meant many state – owned factories moved North

Brazil Background Information 5th largest country in the world Population approx. 182 million Country of stark inequality 60% of population live in poverty UNDP: richest 10% 85 times wealthier than poorest 10% 2005: average income per capita €2,673, but over 40m earn less than €1.50 a day Colonised by Portuguese Brazil is a republic with an elected president 26 states each state has its own government Brasilia is capital

Background Information

5th largest country in the world

Population approx. 182 million

Country of stark inequality

60% of population live in poverty

UNDP: richest 10% 85 times wealthier than poorest 10%

2005: average income per capita €2,673, but over 40m earn less than €1.50 a day

Colonised by Portuguese

Brazil is a republic with an elected president

26 states each state has its own government

Brasilia is capital

Physical Characteristics Relief Most prominent feature: Brazilian Highlands South East mountainous: up to 3,000m Forms part of Brazilian Plateau > covers 60% of country Drainage Amazon occupies almost 1/3 of Brazil Brazil has 1 of largest river systems in world Amazon – Tocantins – Araguaia basins in North drain over 56% of country Climate 3 major climatic zones: Equatorial / Tropical / Semi Arid Equatorial is in Amazon Basin, high temp.s (up to 32 degrees) at night sometimes up to (22 degrees). Heavy convectional rainfall each day. Annual precipitation is 2,000mm+ Tropical: has high temp.s (28-32 degrees) all year . Climates on plateau mild temp.s Coastal cities like Rio moderated by trade winds . Seasons distinguished by variations in rainfall. 60% of population live in areas where altitude, sea winds and weather fronts regulate temp.s Semi – arid: hottest part of Brazil in NE where dry season temp.s of more than 38 degrees occur > droughts

Physical Characteristics

Relief

Most prominent feature: Brazilian Highlands

South East mountainous: up to 3,000m

Forms part of Brazilian Plateau > covers 60% of country

Drainage

Amazon occupies almost 1/3 of Brazil

Brazil has 1 of largest river systems in world

Amazon – Tocantins – Araguaia basins in North drain over 56% of country

Climate

3 major climatic zones: Equatorial / Tropical / Semi Arid

Equatorial is in Amazon Basin, high temp.s (up to 32 degrees) at night sometimes up to (22 degrees). Heavy convectional rainfall each day. Annual precipitation is 2,000mm+

Tropical: has high temp.s (28-32 degrees) all year . Climates on plateau mild temp.s Coastal cities like Rio moderated by trade winds . Seasons distinguished by variations in rainfall. 60% of population live in areas where altitude, sea winds and weather fronts regulate temp.s

Semi – arid: hottest part of Brazil in NE where dry season temp.s of more than 38 degrees occur > droughts

Total amount of precipitation depends on trade winds Brazil receives btwn 1,000mm and 2,000mm per year No spring or autumn 80% of rainfall occurs btwn Oct and March In north, centre and most of east coast, rain falls all year – no dry season. 2 seasons exist here, wet and dry Along coastline, south of Recife, mountains trigger rainfall from SE trade winds. Hinterland relatively dry NE is driest in country, covers 10% of Brazil, here rainfall unreliable and evaporation very high Soils Brazil >Terra Rossa occurs in Sao Paulo > dark red, rich in humus In Amazon Basin, most fertile soils occur where rivers flood regularly and leave silt regularly. This soil loses fertility once deforestation occurs Natural Vegetation Tropical rainforest main vegetation in country covering over 60% of country. Many trees 30m +. Majority of trees have a smooth, thin bark because they do not need protection from water loss or freezing temp.s

Total amount of precipitation depends on trade winds

Brazil receives btwn 1,000mm and 2,000mm per year

No spring or autumn

80% of rainfall occurs btwn Oct and March

In north, centre and most of east coast, rain falls all year – no dry season. 2 seasons exist here, wet and dry

Along coastline, south of Recife, mountains trigger rainfall from SE trade winds. Hinterland relatively dry

NE is driest in country, covers 10% of Brazil, here rainfall unreliable and evaporation very high

Soils

Brazil >Terra Rossa occurs in Sao Paulo > dark red, rich in humus

In Amazon Basin, most fertile soils occur where rivers flood regularly and leave silt regularly. This soil loses fertility once deforestation occurs

Natural Vegetation

Tropical rainforest main vegetation in country covering over 60% of country. Many trees 30m +. Majority of trees have a smooth, thin bark because they do not need protection from water loss or freezing temp.s

Primary Activities Agriculture Agriculture: 12% of Brazil’s GDP + occupies 60m hectares 2006: value of agricultural exports: €46b EU buys approx. 42% of their agri – exports Crop Production 7% of Brazilian farmland arable Corn production increased 40% since 1990 Now exports 3.7mt + 2002: Brazil + Argentina = ½ of global production of soya Brazilian scientists have developed soya plants that can grow in hot conditions, production soared once these resistant varieties identified and developed Soya an important cash crop for Brazil Soya farms highly mechanised and employ 1 person for every 400 acres Soya production linked to increased deforestation in Amazon Tropical climate has limited wheat production to Southern States Sugar Cane production employs 300,000 + people Cattle Production Cattle production high 1,000 hectares + 600 cows needed to make a living Meadows + pastures take up 19% of country Brazil has 165m+ cattle – nearly 1 per person 35m + cattle slaughtered each year Brazilians consume on average 38kg of beef per year Brazil ranked 3 rd in beef consumption Brazil has world’s largest commercial herd 10% of beef exported and figure increasing Since 2004, Brazil is world’s largest exporter

Primary Activities

Agriculture

Agriculture: 12% of Brazil’s GDP + occupies 60m hectares

2006: value of agricultural exports: €46b

EU buys approx. 42% of their agri – exports

Crop Production

7% of Brazilian farmland arable

Corn production increased 40% since 1990

Now exports 3.7mt +

2002: Brazil + Argentina = ½ of global production of soya

Brazilian scientists have developed soya plants that can grow in hot conditions, production soared once these resistant varieties identified and developed

Soya an important cash crop for Brazil

Soya farms highly mechanised and employ 1 person for every 400 acres

Soya production linked to increased deforestation in Amazon

Tropical climate has limited wheat production to Southern States

Sugar Cane production employs 300,000 + people

Cattle Production

Cattle production high

1,000 hectares + 600 cows needed to make a living

Meadows + pastures take up 19% of country

Brazil has 165m+ cattle – nearly 1 per person

35m + cattle slaughtered each year

Brazilians consume on average 38kg of beef per year

Brazil ranked 3 rd in beef consumption

Brazil has world’s largest commercial herd

10% of beef exported and figure increasing

Since 2004, Brazil is world’s largest exporter

Forestry Total area of planted + native forest is 4.7million km squared Under 2% of total forest cover man – made forest of mainly pine and eucalyptus 85%+ of timber production from Amazon, where 3,000+ logging companies in operation Value of exported timber from Amazon is €770m Amazonia forest employs 380,000 people Estimated that as much as 80% of total timber production is illegally cleared Coffee Production Main coffee – producing state is Minas Gerais Coffee production provides income for over 10m people in Brazil Brazil is most powerful coffee – producing nation in world Brazil has coffee stocks of over 16m bags Production controlled by several MNCs such as Nestle, Kraft Brazil has excellent coffee – growing conditions like high temp.s, deep well – drained soils, plenty of rain and high altitudes

Forestry

Total area of planted + native forest is 4.7million km squared

Under 2% of total forest cover man – made forest of mainly pine and eucalyptus

85%+ of timber production from Amazon, where 3,000+ logging companies in operation

Value of exported timber from Amazon is €770m

Amazonia forest employs 380,000 people

Estimated that as much as 80% of total timber production is illegally cleared

Coffee Production

Main coffee – producing state is Minas Gerais

Coffee production provides income for over 10m people in Brazil

Brazil is most powerful coffee – producing nation in world

Brazil has coffee stocks of over 16m bags

Production controlled by several MNCs such as Nestle, Kraft

Brazil has excellent coffee – growing conditions like high temp.s, deep well – drained soils, plenty of rain and high altitudes

Secondary Activities Brazil is an NIC with highly industrialised areas along SE coast Industrial development grew rapidly after WW2 when shortages of imported goods forced Brazil to make their own By 1970s, economic problems began to appear, country was in debt and interest rates increased dramatically along with inflation 1994, new currency introduced : real along with economic reforms 1990s, Brazils economic position recovered and industrial production growing Today, most successful industries are steel, transport, petrochemicals, engineering and cement Location of Manufacturing Most manufacturing located in SE because most iron + steelworks there, raw materials nearby, oil ad gas fields discovered offshore, several large ports there, and foreign investment attracted to large cities Energy Production Energy production increasing Up to 2007, €69b spent on new power projects Growth in production linked to increased demand for electricity and expansion of industry 90% of Brazilian electricity generated by HEP plants in Amazon

Secondary Activities

Brazil is an NIC with highly industrialised areas along SE coast

Industrial development grew rapidly after WW2 when shortages of imported goods forced Brazil to make their own

By 1970s, economic problems began to appear, country was in debt and interest rates increased dramatically along with inflation

1994, new currency introduced : real along with economic reforms

1990s, Brazils economic position recovered and industrial production growing

Today, most successful industries are steel, transport, petrochemicals, engineering and cement

Location of Manufacturing

Most manufacturing located in SE because most iron + steelworks there, raw materials nearby, oil ad gas fields discovered offshore, several large ports there, and foreign investment attracted to large cities

Energy Production

Energy production increasing

Up to 2007, €69b spent on new power projects

Growth in production linked to increased demand for electricity and expansion of industry

90% of Brazilian electricity generated by HEP plants in Amazon

Tertiary Activities Greatest no. of Brazilians employed in tertiary industry Linked to growth in tourism + improvements in healthcare, education and transport Transport Brazilian transport underdeveloped Many roads old, poorly maintained, ports old and inefficient Railroads few and uncompetitive Waterways rarely used – except in Amazon Goods transported by trucks Trans – Amazon Highway ambitious project designed to open up Amazon Basin region Routeways constructed across interior of Brazil towards west of country

Tertiary Activities

Greatest no. of Brazilians employed in tertiary industry

Linked to growth in tourism + improvements in healthcare, education and transport

Transport

Brazilian transport underdeveloped

Many roads old, poorly maintained, ports old and inefficient

Railroads few and uncompetitive

Waterways rarely used – except in Amazon

Goods transported by trucks

Trans – Amazon Highway ambitious project designed to open up Amazon Basin region

Routeways constructed across interior of Brazil towards west of country

Tourism Brazil has many tourist attractions such as: vibrant cities of Rio + Salvador Carnival; many exciting carnivals throughout country Beautiful beaches along Bahia coast Iguaca falls – Brazil’s largest waterfall Pantanal wetland reserve Amazon Still few Europeans visit Brazil, which can be explained by poor infrastructure, lack of advertising in Europe resulting in absence in public consciousness and perceived threat of violence Tourist attractions include Costa do Sauipe which is a purpose – built resort. It has cost €300m + and includes 2 5-star and 3 4-star hotels. Many Europeans now travel there. Costa do Sauipe situated in a beautiful, undeveloped stretch of coastline Rio is a major tourist destination, due to world famous beaches, such as Copacabana and Ipanema, its scenic bay and warm climate. Carnival is Rio’s main tourist event Salvador was Brazil’s original capital, it was also the main port for slaves. Has a large multi – cultural mix. Old town has cobbled streets and colonial buildings, at night restaurants, and bands entertain tourists

Tourism

Brazil has many tourist attractions such as: vibrant cities of Rio + Salvador

Carnival; many exciting carnivals throughout country

Beautiful beaches along Bahia coast

Iguaca falls – Brazil’s largest waterfall

Pantanal wetland reserve

Amazon

Still few Europeans visit Brazil, which can be explained by poor infrastructure, lack of advertising in Europe resulting in absence in public consciousness and perceived threat of violence

Tourist attractions include Costa do Sauipe which is a purpose – built resort. It has cost €300m + and includes 2 5-star and 3 4-star hotels. Many Europeans now travel there. Costa do Sauipe situated in a beautiful, undeveloped stretch of coastline

Rio is a major tourist destination, due to world famous beaches, such as Copacabana and Ipanema, its scenic bay and warm climate. Carnival is Rio’s main tourist event

Salvador was Brazil’s original capital, it was also the main port for slaves. Has a large multi – cultural mix. Old town has cobbled streets and colonial buildings, at night restaurants, and bands entertain tourists

Human Processes Urban Growth Brazil’s towns and cities growing quickly because people still have large families and because people in cities living longer Most Brazilians live close to the east coast due to historical reasons and due to the fact that the climate is more tolerable Brasilia was planned as a town to redistribute the population away from the east, but most residents work there during the week and go home at weekends Native Populations Experiences of Amazonian Indians shows interaction between political, social and economic activities 206 native populations in Brazil today In total, there are approx. 250,000 Indians who mostly live in forest Indigenous population based in Amazon Basin, where around 60% of Brazilian Indians live Most well – known Amazonian Indians called Yamomami Recognition of native lands vital for survival of Amazonian Indians but does not protect the from conflict Miners, loggers, mineral prospectors all sources of conflict Infrastructural works such as roads and HEP stations have also eaten into native areas Indians have preserved an amazing richness in terms of biodiversity and knowledge

Human Processes

Urban Growth

Brazil’s towns and cities growing quickly because people still have large families and because people in cities living longer

Most Brazilians live close to the east coast due to historical reasons and due to the fact that the climate is more tolerable

Brasilia was planned as a town to redistribute the population away from the east, but most residents work there during the week and go home at weekends

Native Populations

Experiences of Amazonian Indians shows interaction between political, social and economic activities

206 native populations in Brazil today

In total, there are approx. 250,000 Indians who mostly live in forest

Indigenous population based in Amazon Basin, where around 60% of Brazilian Indians live

Most well – known Amazonian Indians called Yamomami

Recognition of native lands vital for survival of Amazonian Indians but does not protect the from conflict

Miners, loggers, mineral prospectors all sources of conflict

Infrastructural works such as roads and HEP stations have also eaten into native areas

Indians have preserved an amazing richness in terms of biodiversity and knowledge

Language Main languages Portuguese, Spanish, English and French Greater than 192 different languages in Brazil Patterns of internal migration in Brazil NE one of poorest areas, so is an area of out – migration People move to SE, where standard of living is much higher Movement of poor farmers from land to the city, small farmers who barely make a living look for work in the city Organised government – sponsored migration of poor from city slums to forested region caused damage to the environment Urban Poor Gap between rich and poor striking in cities Many cities have squatter settlements called favelas Estimated that there are more than 3,500 favelas in Brazil Recife believed to have 1/3 highest proportion of favela residents in Brazil Almost 62% of city’s 1.3m live in favelas without basic water, sanitation or electricity Conflict between favela and city residents is still common Recife devised a plan to legalise and urbanise favelas by designating them as ‘ Special Zones of Social Interest’, meaning hat urban services provided and protects favela residents from eviction. Only 31% of Recife’s households have basic sewage treatment Only 33% of waste water treated

Language

Main languages Portuguese, Spanish, English and French

Greater than 192 different languages in Brazil

Patterns of internal migration in Brazil

NE one of poorest areas, so is an area of out – migration

People move to SE, where standard of living is much higher

Movement of poor farmers from land to the city, small farmers who barely make a living look for work in the city

Organised government – sponsored migration of poor from city slums to forested region caused damage to the environment

Urban Poor

Gap between rich and poor striking in cities

Many cities have squatter settlements called favelas

Estimated that there are more than 3,500 favelas in Brazil

Recife believed to have 1/3 highest proportion of favela residents in Brazil

Almost 62% of city’s 1.3m live in favelas without basic water, sanitation or electricity

Conflict between favela and city residents is still common

Recife devised a plan to legalise and urbanise favelas by designating them as ‘ Special Zones of Social Interest’, meaning hat urban services provided and protects favela residents from eviction.

Only 31% of Recife’s households have basic sewage treatment

Only 33% of waste water treated

Impact of Colonialism Economic development of Brazil directly related to colonial past First colonised in 14 th century by Portuguese Used as source of wood, sugar, gold and coffee Social system of rich powerful landowners / politicians and a poor powerless working society developed This extremely unequal society led to changes such as declaring independence from Portugal in 1882, abolition of slavery in 1888, periods of political turmoil resulting in dictatorship rule, introduction of an industrialisation programme to break dependence on exports of unprocessed raw materials, construction of a new capital city, Brasilia

Impact of Colonialism

Economic development of Brazil directly related to colonial past

First colonised in 14 th century by Portuguese

Used as source of wood, sugar, gold and coffee

Social system of rich powerful landowners / politicians and a poor powerless working society developed

This extremely unequal society led to changes such as declaring independence from Portugal in 1882, abolition of slavery in 1888, periods of political turmoil resulting in dictatorship rule, introduction of an industrialisation programme to break dependence on exports of unprocessed raw materials, construction of a new capital city, Brasilia

Deforestation Rainforests disappearing at a rate of about 40 hectares per minute Reasons for deforestation include cash crop production and cattle ranching, logging, demand for wood and fuel, construction of large dams, mining and industry and government – organised forest colonisation schemes Underlying causes of deforestation include overpopulation and poverty encouraging people to move away from favelas to forests, the government wanting to open up rainforest and exploit its timber and mineral wealth, beef producers requiring more land to herd cattle as well as forest being cleared for ranching and soya plantations, also forests are drowned under huge reservoirs as rivers are dammed as industry require more power Licenses re given to mining companies to clear forests and mine for metals Roads are being built across Amazon to create access for logging companies, mineral companies, ranches and HEP Longest road is Trans – Amazonian Highway, a 5,300km road Over 125 Hep stations built in forest Brazilian govt announced plans in 2000 for Avanca Brasil: a €30b plan to cover much of rainforest with highways, HEP stations, power lines, etc.

Deforestation

Rainforests disappearing at a rate of about 40 hectares per minute

Reasons for deforestation include cash crop production and cattle ranching, logging, demand for wood and fuel, construction of large dams, mining and industry and government – organised forest colonisation schemes

Underlying causes of deforestation include overpopulation and poverty encouraging people to move away from favelas to forests, the government wanting to open up rainforest and exploit its timber and mineral wealth, beef producers requiring more land to herd cattle as well as forest being cleared for ranching and soya plantations, also forests are drowned under huge reservoirs as rivers are dammed as industry require more power

Licenses re given to mining companies to clear forests and mine for metals

Roads are being built across Amazon to create access for logging companies, mineral companies, ranches and HEP

Longest road is Trans – Amazonian Highway, a 5,300km road

Over 125 Hep stations built in forest

Brazilian govt announced plans in 2000 for Avanca Brasil: a €30b plan to cover much of rainforest with highways, HEP stations, power lines, etc.

Scientists predict that these planned developments will lead to daage or loss of between 33-42% of remaining forest Deforestation means soils are drained of nutrients in a few years, exposed soil is baked into hard, brick – like surface, leaving poor people in a desperate situation. Settlers then move back to cities, grass growth on latosols so poor that beef cattle do not thrive and more land is cleared to feed them. Natural habitat for wildlife is severely reduced, climate becomes hotter and drier because in the past, the forest regulated temp.s. Before 1500, approx. 6m native people in Amazonia. By 2007, less than 250,000. In 20 th century 90 tribes wiped out Protecting the forest while allowing economic development is a huge challenge for the future. In 2004, President da Silva placed over 2,000km squared under govt protection. 4% of Amazon is protected in environmental reserves, another 20% protected in indigenous reservations. However, Brazil still struggles to enforce environmental laws in a huge nation that is cash - strapped

Scientists predict that these planned developments will lead to daage or loss of between 33-42% of remaining forest

Deforestation means soils are drained of nutrients in a few years, exposed soil is baked into hard, brick – like surface, leaving poor people in a desperate situation. Settlers then move back to cities, grass growth on latosols so poor that beef cattle do not thrive and more land is cleared to feed them. Natural habitat for wildlife is severely reduced, climate becomes hotter and drier because in the past, the forest regulated temp.s. Before 1500, approx. 6m native people in Amazonia. By 2007, less than 250,000. In 20 th century 90 tribes wiped out

Protecting the forest while allowing economic development is a huge challenge for the future. In 2004, President da Silva placed over 2,000km squared under govt protection. 4% of Amazon is protected in environmental reserves, another 20% protected in indigenous reservations. However, Brazil still struggles to enforce environmental laws in a huge nation that is cash - strapped