Colin Gordon MSc_Final_Thesis January 2010

School of Computing and
Technology,
University of East London,
Graduate School of the Environment, Docklands Campus,
Centre for Alternative Technology, 4-6 University Way,
Machynlleth, Powys, SY20 9AZ. UK London, E16 2RD. UK
Tel: 01654 705981 Tel: 020 8223 3000

Colin Gordon ‘What are the Problems...Delivering Sustainable Schools...’ Page 2
What are the problems in delivering ‘Sustainable Schools’
and how can these be overcome?
Thesis for MSc Architecture : AEES
Colin Gordon
0738804
Jan 2010

“Things are changing fast, so we need rapid feedback on how well they are actually working. We
have to learn as much as possible from our own experiences and to share them with others”
(Bordass, 2009)
PREFACE
Sustainability has created many new challenges for architecture and the technology and theories
which underpin the field are still evolving. In essence, the emergence of sustainable schools
requires the industry to develop new skills and to understand that design is a collaborative
process, which has broader implications for the future.
The research for this thesis was motivated by a desire to clarify findings from previous studies
which have identified that recently completed schools have failed to achieve good practice levels
for sustainability. Previous studies have used Design Quality Indicators to quantitatively measure
performance in new schools, giving a useful appraisal of quality levels across many schools.
However, these abstract scoring methods did not reveal the true nature of the issues undermining
quality or suggest methods by problems could be resolved.
This thesis contributes to knowledge in the field by gathering information from industry sources,
traditionally outside POE feedback loops, to give a more rounded picture of the practical
problems of building new schools. This was done in addition to incorporating conventional “walk
through interview” POE, which was focussed on analysing building problems and incorporating
the views of end users and clients.
The research for this thesis was conducted over a 6 month period, throughout the latter half of
2009. During this time, the researcher lead a parallel life as a senior architect in private practice,
closely involved in the design and construction of two new PPP schools. Direct experience of the
construction process has therefore informed the conclusions of this study.

ABSTRACT
Research into the problems of delivering sustainability in new school building was done using
triangulation methodology, where several lines of enquiry were used to corroborate findings. The
research comprised a literature review, questionnaires, POE case studies and interviews. The
results were analysed and recommendations proposed for the resolution of perceived failings in
current procurement methods.
There were two main threads to the findings of this thesis. Firstly, the evidence revealed that
significant barriers to quality and sustainability exist in the culture of modern procurement.
Secondly, the behaviour of occupants after hand over was investigated, revealing significant
impact on building performance and energy consumption.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, thanks are due to Dr Simon Tucker for all his inspiration, enthusiasm and practical
guidance throughout the MSc.
Special thanks are also due to John Easton and Mark Mulville of Sustainable Futures who assisted
in opening discussions with Scottish Executive; to everyone at East Lothian Council who assisted
with the schools POE and particularly George Hay, who answered all my queries and was
instrumental in enabling access to the schools.
I would also like to thank FES and Ian McSweeney of Archial Architects for their candid, insightful
interviews.
Finally, I would like to thank my partner Samantha and son Chae for their patience with me over
many months, especially during all those times when I was distracted by matters of a sustainable
nature!

CONTENTS
PREFACE ............................................................................................................................................3
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................................................................4
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS......................................................................................................................7
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, FIGURES & TABLES.......................................................................................8
1.0 Introduction.........................................................................................................................9
1.1 Purpose of the Thesis......................................................................................................10
1.2 Thesis Structure...............................................................................................................10
2.0 Literature Review...............................................................................................................12
2.1 Building Schools for the Future / Scottish School Estate Programmes...........................12
2.2 What is a Sustainable School?.........................................................................................13
2.3 Design and Procurement of Sustainable Schools............................................................15
2.4 BREEAM...........................................................................................................................16
2.5 Energy Efficiency .............................................................................................................18
2.6 Renewable Energy...........................................................................................................20
2.7 The Role of Post Occupancy Evaluation..........................................................................21
2.8 The Impact of School Learning Environments ................................................................23
2.9 Comparison of Sustainable Schools against Previous Models........................................23
2.10 Zurich Insurance POE ......................................................................................................25
2.11 Assessment of Recent Design Quality in Schools............................................................26
2.12 Summary of Literature Review........................................................................................27
3.0 Methodology .....................................................................................................................28
3.1 Research Design ..............................................................................................................28
3.2 Research Process.............................................................................................................28
3.3 Critique of the Research Methodology...........................................................................30
4.0 Results................................................................................................................................31
4.1 POE Case Study 1 – Musselburgh Grammar PPP ............................................................31
4.1.1 Background ................................................................................................................31
4.1.2 Summary of Findings..................................................................................................31
4.1.3 Janitor Interview ........................................................................................................33
4.1.4 Interview with Deputy Head Teacher ........................................................................34
4.1.5 Conclusion to Case Study 1........................................................................................35
4.2 POE Case Study 2 – Windygoul Primary Design and Build..............................................36
4.2.1 Background ................................................................................................................36
4.2.4 Interview with Head Teacher.....................................................................................38
4.3 POE Case Study 3 – North Berwick High PPP ..................................................................41
4.3.1 Background ................................................................................................................41
4.3.4 Interview with Head Teacher.....................................................................................44

4.4 POE Case Study 4 – Knox Academy PPP..........................................................................46
4.4.1 Background ................................................................................................................46
4.4.4 Interview with Head Teacher and Schools Liaison Officer.........................................48
4.5 Interviews.......................................................................................................................51
4.5.1 Findings from M+E engineer / FM team Interviews ..................................................51
4.5.2 Conclusions of M+E / FM Interview...........................................................................53
4.5.3 Findings from Architect Interview..............................................................................54
4.5.4 Conclusions from Architect Interview........................................................................55
5.0 Discussion ..........................................................................................................................57
5.1 How effective was the POE methodology?.....................................................................57
5.2 What is happening to POE findings?...............................................................................57
5.3 How are new schools performing? .................................................................................58
5.4 How well is best value delivered through competitive dialogue?..................................59
6.0 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................60
6.1 Evaluation of the Research and Contribution to Knowledge in the Field.......................60
6.2 Recommendations for Policy Makers .............................................................................62
6.3 Recommendations for further research .........................................................................63
APPENDICES ......................................................................................................................................65
APPENDIX A Scottish Executive POE..............................................................................................65
APPENDIX B Energy Questionnaire................................................................................................68
APPENDIX C Natural Ventilation and Daylighting..........................................................................70
APPENDIX D Considerations for Renewables in New Schools .......................................................72
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................74
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................................75

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADS Architecture and Design Scotland
BCSE British Council for School Environments
BMS Building Management Systems
BRE Building Research Establishment
BREEAM Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method
BRECSU Building Research Energy Conservation Support Unit
BSRIA Building Services Research and Information Association
CHP Combined Heat and Power
CO₂ Carbon Dioxide
CRC Carbon Reduction Commitment
db decibels
DC Design Council
DDA Disability Discrimination Act
DfES Department for Education and Skills
DQI Design Quality Indicators
EAM Environmental Assessment Methods
FES Forth Electrical Services
FM Facilities Management
GCU Glasgow Caledonian University
GSH Ground Source Heat
HCESC House of Commons Education and Skills Committee
HMIE Her Majesty’s Inspectors for Education
IAQ Indoor Air Quality
ICAX Inter-seasonal Collection and Exchange
IT Information Technology
KPI Key Performance Indicator
kW Kilo watts
KWh Kilo watt hours
KWp Kilo watt peak
LAs Local Authorities
l/s/p litres per second per person
m/s metres per second
M+E Mechanical and Electrical
OFSTED Office for Standards in Education
PFI Private Finance Initiative
PIR Passive Infrared
POE Post Occupancy Evaluation
ppm part per million
PPP Public Private Partnership
PV Photovoltaics
RIBA Royal Institute of British Architects
SFT Scottish Futures Trust
TUPE Transfer of Undertakings Protection of Employment
UFH Under Floor Heating

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS, FIGURES & TABLES
Page No.
1.2 : Relative Importance of Factors Affecting Sustainability.......................................... 11
2.4 : Typical Building Features of a BREEAM rated Primary School.................................17
2.5 : Benchmarks for Energy Performance...................................................................... 20
2.7 : BRE Design Quality Indicator Matrix........................................................................22
4.1.1 : Extension at Main Entrance (Musselburgh Grammar)............................................ 32
4.1.2 : Window restrictor removal......................................................................................32
4.1.3 : Compromises to Services Distribution.....................................................................33
4.2.1 : Plan of Windygoul Primary School...........................................................................36
4.2.2 : Glare to Dining Rooms – PV cell glazing with electricity monitor on the wall.........37
4.2.3: Internal Courtyard................................................................................................... 37
4.2.4: Good Wayfinding at Main Entrance (Windygoul)....................................................38
4.2.5: Natural Day-lighting to Nursery Classroom............................................................. 39
4.3.1: Main Entrance (North Berwick High)....................................................................... 41
4.3.2: White Board / Surface Mounted Conduit............................................................... 42
4.3.3: North Facing Glazing by Solar Control Blinds...........................................................43
4.3.4: Landscaped Courtyard............................................................................................. 43
4.3.5: Social / Dining Area..................................................................................................43
4.4.1: Knox Academy – main entrance.............................................................................. 46
4.4.2: 3D view of Knox Academy....................................................................................... 47
4.4.3: Technical room in refurbished area........................................................................ 47
4.4.4: Low ceilings to classrooms.......................................................................................47
4.4.5: Landscaped area adjacent to social space...............................................................49

1.0 Introduction
Over the last decade, the UK government has set about delivering on its election promise to
implement what has now become the largest school building programme in history. In Scotland,
this represents the completion of 300 new or refurbished schools by 2009, the majority of which
incorporate sustainable design principles. Unfortunately, with little precedent available to
designers, speed of delivery has necessitated a steep learning curve for all involved.
Recent studies have revealed that there are significant concerns regarding quality and fitness for
purpose of completed school projects (BRE, 2007) (CABE,2006). Moreover, despite briefs which
define sustainability as a primary requirement, relatively few schools fully conform to these
criteria (Scottish Exec., 2004). Practice based research, which can disseminate the lessons of
recently completed school buildings, is urgently required to increase knowledge in the field (GCU,
2007). Given the scale of this initiative, these are worrying findings which require to be tackled,
particularly in the context of delivering best value.
The architectural profession has been slow to adopt practice based research as a means to inform
design decisions, although this is changing, with nascent post occupancy evaluation (POE).
Perhaps, one of the most useful aspects of this emerging field is gradual recognition that design
development is a rather more complex process than was previously realised. Moreover, fine
tuning of building systems can continue long after hand over and has wider implications for
everyone involved in procurement and operation.
Research on sustainable schools may have identified shortcomings in design quality but there is
still work to be done to clarify the true nature of the problems and to formulate remedies.
Previous POE findings indicate that as well as conventional design critique, further investigation is
required into the influence of procurement method and facilities management upon building
performance (Bordass, 2009). Taking these findings as a starting point, this thesis will use post
occupancy case studies to illuminate the practical realities behind the theory of building what is
popularly termed “sustainable schools”.

1.1 Purpose of the Thesis
The purpose of this research is to investigate reported problems in new schools and by using POE
methods, propose possible solutions to barriers which are presently undermining quality. The
thesis is specifically aimed at educational policy makers and procurement teams involved in
building new schools, as well as academics who may be interested in the developing field of
sustainable construction.
To achieve this goal, five key aims were identified for the research:
 To establish common themes regarding main areas of concern in new schools.
 Conduct a literature review to collate topical thinking in the field and review recent
research into problem areas.
 Appraise quality in the context of procurement methods.
 To use POE as a tool to investigate design quality in sustainable schools.
 Propose key recommendations based on the aims stated above.
Given the broad ranging nature of sustainability, it should be recognised that this investigation is
confined to sustainability issues which are generally within the control of procurement teams.
Most notably, these are energy consumption and environmental quality within recently
completed schools, which have been identified by user groups as the most important
sustainability features – see fig 1.2 (Jackson, 2007). Other relevant issues which form part of the
wider debate e.g. transportation, biodiversity; global and economic aspects are outside the scope
of this study.
1.2 Thesis Structure
Chapter 1 establishes the context, range and aims of research for the thesis.
Chapter 2 covers the literature review, which was driven by a desire to establish current thinking
on delivering sustainable schools. It will begin with an outline of the current school building
programme, before discussing the main issues in the context of published research and
guidelines. The review concludes with a summary of recent school POE studies, commissioned by
the Scottish Executive which identifies problems and gaps in current research.

Chapter 3 outlines the research proposal. Triangulation methodology was adopted, with several
lines of enquiry being used to clarify findings from different perspectives. The centre piece of the
thesis is post occupancy evaluation of 4 recently completed schools in East Lothian.
Chapter 4 sets out the results from the POE case studies and interviews.
Chapter 5 seeks to analyse the data gathered through the research process, with particular
reference to outcomes of sustainability and performance. The analysis will seek to identify the
technical and bureaucratic problems facing the schools investigated and how these can be
overcome.
Chapter 6 summarises conclusions and proposes broad recommendations for sustainable schools
to assist policy makers with procurement decisions across framework agreements.
Fig 1.2 – Relative Importance of Factors Affecting Sustainability
source: “Leading Sustainable Schools” - page 32 (Jackson, 2007)

2.0 Literature Review
Although the field of Sustainable Schools is a relatively new area, it is a flagship initiative and
consequently much has been written on the topic. This necessitated a fairly extensive literature
review and revealed that a great deal of research into performance has already been done.
Moreover, many policy documents have been produced, with Building Bulletins setting out
criteria for environmental performance. Whilst mostly useful, the downside of this situation is
that guidance for designers tends to be spread across multiple documents, which can make
briefing potentially hazardous.
The next section begins with a review of the sustainable schools programme and its requirements
before discussing the role of POE in raising quality. The chapter concludes with a review of recent
quality assessment carried out in schools, which identifies problems and areas for future research.
Due to the breadth of the topic, the literature review is lengthy and technical in places but it has
been arranged to allow readers to refer to relevant sections as required.
2.1 Building Schools for the Future / Scottish School Estate Programmes
The current school building programme was launched in the late 1990s, under the newly elected
Labour government manifesto. The drive for Sustainable Schools was not part of the original
policy but with the publication of the Sustainable Action Plan, environmentally sensitive building
became a major priority for the programme (DfES, 2003).
A controversial feature of the initiative has been Public Private Partnership/Public Finance
Initiative (PPP/PFI) funding mechanisms, commonly used to procure new and refurbished schools
(GCU, 2007). Under these schemes, finance is provided by private consortiums, who lease
facilities back to Local Authorities over a 25 – 30 period contract. At the end of the term, the
buildings are returned to the Councils, ostensibly in perfect condition.
This may have solved the maintenance back log problems associated with existing schools but
critics have denounced PPP as a barrier to excellence in design (GCU,2007). It should be
acknowledged that this may be incorrect. An assessment of recently completed school buildings
has revealed that in comparison with traditional procurement, there was little difference in
quality. In fact, both funding methods produced schools which fell short of good practice
standards (BRE,2007). This suggests that there are problems in the delivery process. Further
enquiry is now required to establish the influence of procurement route on outcomes.

In Scotland, greater knowledge of procurement issues is particularly relevant in the light of
Scottish Futures Trust (SFT), which is replacing PPP as a means to deliver large public projects, on
a not-for-profit basis. At this time, the exact nature of this funding mechanism is unresolved; with
the result that there has been a two year gap in commissioning new school projects. This is
concerning in the context of a recession, as the construction skills which have been built up over
the last decade, may be lost
New sustainable concepts are being introduced through the current building programme, such as
the social principle of “community schools”, which affords public access to shared facilities, out of
school hours (ADS, 2006). Positive design features include the creation of specialised teaching
spaces and the provision of internal social spaces, often linked to landscaped courtyards. On the
downside, the emergence of a “value engineering” culture appears to be undermining quality
with architectural innovation often diverted to cost saving measures. Corridors are usually
centralised, with rooms on either side for economy, or overlapping with social spaces to reduce
area. This internalises these public spaces and limits their flexibility (ADS, 2006).
With regard to the construction techniques of new schools, it has been reported that these are
generally derived from retail, leisure or office contexts (ADS, 2006), which may reflect areas of
particular expertise within construction teams. By far the most common materials are metal
cladding, aluminium windows and brick, with the occasional use of timber cladding at high level. It
is noted that commercial building types tend to be flexible and will usually undergo many
adaptations throughout their building life. This could be a good thing for sustainability and the
ongoing development of the school curriculum, providing longevity can be demonstrated and
achieved.
2.2 What is a Sustainable School?
The term “sustainable school” has become firmly established in the parlance of the government’s
school building programme. However, what it means in practical terms for construction teams is
subject to ongoing debate and little qualitative post occupancy research is available to assist with
evaluation.

The guiding principles of sustainable schools are defined as follows:
 Low dependence on fossil fuels.
 Encouragement of sustainable methods of transport
 Enhancement of biodiversity
 Reduced water consumption
 Responsible sourcing of building materials
(DfES, 2006)
The recent government report into progress of the BSF programme suggests that there are
difficulties in defining sustainability, since it requires bespoke requirements for any given building
project (HCESC, 2007). Similarly, recent reports on the Scottish School Estate strategy have
revealed a lack of clarity on objectives (Audit Scotland, 2008). 10 years into the parallel BSF
programme, it was noted that clear objectives for sustainability were still required before the
success of the initiative could begin to be measured (HCESC, 2007). Unfortunately, this indicates
that the government has largely left the responsibility for delivering sustainability to the market
place. Given the commercial pressures on construction, this is unlikely to promote a sustainable
building culture, particularly in the absence of clear objectives.
Gaia Research define sustainable school building as “applied good sense – an aspiration to build
to the highest quality and functional standard and with cost assessments that reflect the whole
building life cycle, such that investment can be properly maintained” (Gaia, 2004). They recently
extended this definition to include a commitment to social responsibility, environmentally benign
construction methods and post occupancy evaluation (Halliday, 2007). These are laudable
concerns but their range extends some way beyond the traditional boundaries of a construction
project and implies that sustainable building has operational and political implications. It is
presently unclear how these issues are addressed by present procurement methods and this will
be investigated later in the primary research.
In the absence of clear guidance, the government has embraced the principles of British Research
Establishment Environmental Assessment Method (BREEAM) as a means to demonstrate
sustainable credibility, by stipulating high ratings for new schools (HCESC, 2007). Environmental
Assessment Methods (EAMs) are toolkits which typically assess performance across a number of
categories including water management, energy efficiency, indoor air quality, material selection,
transportation and community use (Ford, 2007). Given the complexities of monitoring
sustainability across a construction project, particularly where there are reputed industry skill

gaps, the use of EAMs is a sensible initiative. However, greater knowledge regarding the
performance of highly rated BREEAM schools post occupancy is urgently required to establish
how well these appraisal tools are delivering key objectives. This aspect was outside the scope of
the primary research but is cited as an area for future investigation.
2.3 Design and Procurement of Sustainable Schools
“Sustainability in Schools is highly context dependent: what works for one school with a particular
set of requirements and constraints may not be so successful elsewhere”
(DfES, 2006).
There is currently no specific information available to clients on best ways in which to procure or
indeed create a brief for a sustainable school (BCSE, 2006). Similarly, despite a plethora of policy
documents, little guidance is available to those seeking to deliver sustainable objectives through
construction projects (Halliday, 2007). This reflects the bespoke nature of sustainable design but
puts the onus on construction teams to develop appropriate solutions – perhaps unrealistic, given
the skill gaps and scale of the challenge involved.
Gaia recommends that clients produce a sustainable development policy at the outset of a
project, which can be given to designers in the form of a Sustainable Policy statement (Gaia,
2004). This requires the client to have a thorough knowledge of sustainability, with particular
relevance to school construction projects. Unfortunately, recent research has revealed that a lack
of skills in client groups has been a particular handicap for new projects. Moreover, it has not
been possible to acquire these skills within procurement time frames, particularly whilst
maintaining regular school duties (HCESC ,2007).
Consultation at all levels, both internally and externally, is noted as a mandatory requirement for
successful design development (Gaia, 2004) but it has been reported that insufficient time is
made available within current programmes for this process (GCU, 2007). This is an important
aspect which will be investigated further as part of the primary research, within the context of
procurement routes.

Gaia suggest that those tendering for a sustainable school project should be able to demonstrate
evidence of delivering similar projects elsewhere, indicating a lack of faith in the construction
industry (2004). The Riverside Infants School case study, recently presented in BCSE’s “Getting It
Right” document, appears to highlight some confusion.
For example, under floor heating (UFH) is referenced in this paper as a sustainable solution, since
it allegedly allows non-load bearing walls to be moved as required for future flexibility. In practice,
this could be hazardous, due to the potential for floor fixings to puncture heating pipes in the
screed; especially since “as-built” pipe work inevitably varies considerably from design drawings.
However, UFH could be regarded as a potentially sustainable solution, if used in conjunction with
ground source heat pumps and high levels of insulation to reduce energy consumption.
On the same case study, the sedum roof is cited as a benefit for roof insulation, despite the fact
that building regulations stipulate it must be discounted from u-value calculations. Sedum can be
specified for surface water attenuation or biodiversity benefits, which are credible aspects, not
mentioned in the document. The use of chains in lieu of rainwater pipes is further presented as a
sustainable feature, although again, this is debatable. The construction team was chosen through
a design competition (BCSE, 2006), which either indicates a lack of requisite knowledge amongst
procurement teams or some breakdown in communication. Ultimately, this undermines the
credibility of this design guidance document which is unfortunate.
In the absence of time and skills for generating bespoke briefing documents, it has fallen to
Building Bulletins and Environmental Assessment Methods eg BREEAM, to define sustainable
credentials for schools. The unfortunate outcome of this situation is that without a clear definition
of sustainability for individual projects, the likelihood of a mismatch between expectations and
results is increased.
2.4 BREEAM
As noted above, BREEAM has become established as the pre-eminent assessment method for
predicting environmental performance in sustainable schools; with a rating of “good” or “very
good” being necessary for statutory compliance (BB98, 2004; BB99, 2006). Higher BREEAM ratings
require evidence of performance which is in excess of BB guidelines.

BREEAM was developed by BRE in association with DfES as a tool to measure sustainability,
whereby schools are awarded points for evidence of sustainable performance across many
aspects of their design and construction. Ratings are then awarded to schools on the basis of the
total points achieved (BRE, 2007).
Fig. 2.4 – Typical Building Features of a BREEAM rated Primary School
source: “Putting a price on sustainable Schools” - page 10 (Surgenor, 2008)
Recently there has been some criticism of the sustainable credibility of schools which achieve high
ratings. The main contention with BREEAM is that a points based system does not promote an
holistic vision for building sustainably (HCESC, 2007). However, given that absolute definitions for
sustainable schools are impractical (see above); it is understandable that EAMs are being used to
set targets for environmental performance, waste reduction and material selection. It is also
useful to have an industry benchmark standard which enables comparison across projects at any
given time.
The downside of EAMs is that commercial pressures can favour pursuit of the most cost effective
credits in preference to the most sustainable. Moreover, commitment across construction teams
is variable, requiring the appointment of a “BREEAM champion” to see the project home,
although time and funding for this role can be difficult. This is in spite of recent research which
has identified that the cost increases for delivering BREEAM “very good” rated schools is less than
3% (Surgenor, 2008). It should be noted that this figure was exclusive of whole life cost

considerations due to the difficulty of obtaining relevant information from construction teams
(Surgenor, 2008).
BREEAM has also been criticised in relation to the relatively low weighting given to carbon
reducing measures (HCESC,2007). Fortunately, in recognition that sustainability is an ongoing
debate, the BREEAM system is subject to constant review and updating, to address industry
concerns. In the 2008 revision, mandatory carbon reduction measures were introduced as a
necessary component for higher ratings. Additionally, a post construction assessment is now
required to demonstrate that features awarded credits at design review, are not subsequently
“value engineered” out during the construction stage. These are sensible initiatives, which should
be monitored for impact, particularly in the light of the downgrading of other sections e.g.
biodiversity.
2.5 Energy Efficiency
“Operating a building has a higher environmental impact than construction and demolition”.
(Fisher, Jessop et al, 2007)
The need to reduce energy consumption and lower carbon emissions is a key aspect of delivering
sustainable schools (BB87, 2003), the hierarchy for which can be summarised as follows:
 Start with passive systems to reduce energy use
 Service the building efficiently and provide good user controls
 Commission services effectively
 Use low-carbon energy supplies.
(Bordass, 2009)
Simple, passive measures are the most effective for reducing energy consumption and have the
added benefit of being maintenance free. To illustrate this point, Bordass makes the case that by
halving demand, doubling efficiency and halving the carbon content of its energy sources, a
building will reduce its CO₂ emissions to one eighth (2007). The principles of natural ventilation
and day-lighting are fundamental passive aspects of sustainable schools, further details of which
are included in Appendix C.
It should be noted that many of the most significant passive energy saving decisions can only be
implemented at the initial design stage. For example, judicious orientation reduces heating and
cooling loads throughout a building’s life, whilst simultaneously yielding associated savings
through reduced mechanical plant provision. It is important that these opportunities are

maximised and that adequate time is made available in design programmes to fully investigate.
The current culture of construction procurement means that, due to pressure on fees, architects
usually have to develop the design to an advanced phase, prior to any meaningful user or
consultant input. It should be recognised that successful outcomes are therefore hugely
dependent upon an architect’s skill set and their appointment should be considered on the basis
of sustainability credentials, in addition to relevant schools experience.
Increasing insulation and air tightness standards has reduced heating loads but has recently been
linked to retro-fit mechanical cooling (Fisher, Jessop et al, 2007) reflecting the fact that heat build
up is a major issue for new schools. Heat reduction measures stipulated in Building Bulletin 95
(BB95) include thermal mass, natural ventilation, natural day-lighting and good light and heat
controls, which will be covered in greater detail below (DfES, 2002).
The main influencers upon the energy performance of schools are:
 Provision of additional facilities such as sports halls or swimming pools, which typically
increase energy use by 20%. This is a factor to be considered in the context of
community schools
 Hours of occupation
 Size of schools – larger schools use less energy per pupil.
(BRECSU, 1998)
BB87 and BB101 set out strict guidelines for thermal comfort within new schools, such that
maximum temperatures should not exceed 32˚C and temperatures in excess of 28˚C are not
permissible for more than 80 hours a year. It is also stipulated that internal temperatures should
not exceed 5˚C above external temperatures in the summer months. For a few days a year, this is
not possible by passive means alone, which has unfortunately necessitated the use of mechanical
cooling in situations which could otherwise have been avoided (ICAX, 2007).
BB95 requires designers to provide calculations which demonstrate compliance with acoustic and
energy requirements (DfES,2002). Realistic targets should be set for these during the design
phase, to avoid the potential mismatch between expectation and results. This is evidenced by
recently published case studies which suggest difficulty obtaining accurate figures to compare
design energy targets (DfES, 2006). Further investigation is necessary into the realities of
predicting energy use, especially since it is reported that energy levels are frequently exceeded

post occupancy (Bordass, 2007). A number of factors can conspire to create this situation,
including un-coordinated IT installation and unforeseen levels of occupation (BCSE, 2006).
Good housekeeping such as switching off lights, closing windows and regular checks of heating
controls can reduce energy consumption by at least 10% (BRE, 1996). Anecdotal evidence has
further revealed that frequently occupants struggle with building management due to poor user
interfaces and lack of training, which can significantly increase energy in use (Bordass, 2009).
The provision of representative industry bench marks for energy use can provide a useful tool by
which performance can be measured and managed –see fig 2.6 (BRECSU, 1998). However, these
benchmarks should be revised regularly to keep pace with advances in sustainable construction,
otherwise they will be misleading.
Fig 2.5 – Benchmarks for Energy Consumption in Schools
source : “Saving Energy in Schools” – page 4 (BRECSU, 1998)
2.6 Renewable Energy
“The council will encourage the energy efficient design of buildings and their layout and
orientation on site. All new non-residential developments above a threshold of 1000m2 will be
expected to incorporate renewable energy production equipment to provide at least 10% of
predicted energy requirements.”
(Merton Council, 2009)

There is a notable lack of renewable technology guidance for construction teams procuring new
schools, requiring designers to interpolate the principles from other building types. Following the
publication of the Merton Rule, specification of renewables is becoming a mandatory
requirement for planning consent (Scottish Exec, 2007), despite the fact that it is rarely a cost
effective means of generating energy. Instead, case studies cite the key benefit as communicating
sustainability values through the school curriculum. (DfES, 2006). The considerations for
specifying established renewables in schools are summarised in Appendix D.
It should be noted that for renewable systems to function efficiently, they require to be
monitored and maintained on a frequent and regular basis. Moreover, complexity of energy
systems is increased, especially when used in parallel with traditional sources or if more than one
technology is adopted. This puts greater demands upon management resources.
2.7 The Role of Post Occupancy Evaluation
The use of post occupancy evaluation as a means to share the lessons of best practice is gradually
becoming established in sustainable school initiatives (DfES, 2006). POE is focussed on assessing
building performance in use and recognises that building completion is simply the starting point
of delivering sustainability (Halliday, 2007).
Myriad methodologies have been established for carrying out POE, and their scope extends to all
aspects of building performance, as well as conventional appraisal of architectural quality.
However, a disadvantage of POE methodologies is their tendency to be burdensome and
unnecessarily prescriptive, with some requiring the appointment of trained assessors (Scottish
Exec, 2005). The process for selecting an appropriate method should be confined by the nature of
data to be obtained and the purpose of its analysis. In the BSRIA example cited in 2.11 below, POE
was carried out using the carbon methodology to gain a specific comparison of benchmark
emissions, across 3 schools (BSRIA, 2007). BRE proposes Design Quality Indicator (DQI) method
whereby various aspects of performance are given a points rating, which enables quality across a
number of schools to be usefully compared. However, results are abstracted and do not readily
convey the nature or peculiarities of the problems encountered.

For Scottish Schools, the Executive recommend Local Authorities (LAs) carry out “walk through
interviews” with key building users’ comments reported, to promote transparency (Scottish Exec,
2005). The advantage of this method is that it is relatively easy to do, with informality promoting
better participation and communication with building users. Additionally, the open nature of this
style of investigation, allows for the reporting of unforeseen problems, which would otherwise be
missed by more prescriptive methods (Scottish Exec, 2005). Against this style of enquiry, it is
acknowledged that such studies will be qualitative and the human element must be recognised.
For example, it is not unknown for participants with a particular grievance, to use POE feedback as
means to exact revenge at perceived management failings or organisational change (Halliday,
2007).
It usually takes about two years for a new building to achieve optimum performance, which
typically involves using POE to fine tune Building Management Systems (BMS) and train
operatives (BSRIA, 2007). This is an increasing challenge for building users, as complexity
continues to increase in line with burgeoning renewable technology. Moreover, it has been
reported that the quoted costs for fine tuning aspects of a BMS system can be prohibitively
expensive, with the result that clients often replace equipment instead (Bordass, 2007). This
highlights the fact that POE may be at risk of compromise through mismanagement and
misguided cost reducing measures. This aspect will be investigated further in the thesis.
This diagram is an
example of POE using
DQI methodology where
points are awarded in
categories and results
are presented in graph
format.
Fig 2.7 – BRE DQI Matrix
source: “Design Quality of
Scottish Schools” – page 10
(BRE, 2007)

2.8 The Impact of School Learning Environments
Research into the performance of teaching environments post occupancy is a relatively new area.
In recent years, the disparate nature of design guidance and legislation, coupled with the scale of
the government’s school building programme has necessitated urgent investigation into quality
and performance. In 2005, the Design Council commissioned a literature review into the impact of
teaching environments, with the aim of identifying lessons from POE which could inform
construction teams on future projects. The study noted that the available research tended to
focus on particular aspects of environmental performance in isolation, which did not reflect the
complexities of real life situations. The effects of combining performance criteria were as yet
unrecorded but are deemed to be significant (DC, 2005).
Whilst it could be clearly proven that poor environmental performance adversely affected
occupant learning, the effect of mediocre environments was unknown. This research also noted
that the social and philosophical aspects of the school curriculum were at least as important as
the physical structure of the building (DC, 2005). This suggests that in buildings which are fit for
purpose, the teaching culture within the school may have a greater impact on academic
performance than the architecture.
Disturbingly, the literature review revealed that much of the available research was not being
incorporated into the design of new teaching environments. Examples cited, include the desire to
reconfigure room layouts easily for different purposes or the benefits of ergonomic furniture. Low
take up in research findings was attributed to a lack of engagement with building users during the
design process (DC, 2005). This was echoed in other papers, which attributed design success to be
directly proportional to the level of user consultation (HCESC ,2007, GCU, 2007). It is also possible
that since expert opinions can vary, the stabilising input of ordinary users, who ultimately use the
building, is critical. The paper suggested that this engagement should continue as the building’s
requirements change, to reflect the ongoing personal investment of its users (DC, 2005). Both
these findings have strong implications for the method of procurement by which schools are
delivered and suggest potential new roles for design teams, after building hand over.
2.9 Comparison of Sustainable Schools against Previous Models
Critics of the current building programme have argued that schools design has evolved little since
Victorian models (GCU, 2007). This is highly inaccurate but may reflect a renaissance of more
sensible passive environmental control measures from this period.

In 2007, a study compared the carbon footprints of three primary schools from different periods:
a Victorian; a 1970s model and a sustainable exemplar. The research revealed the following:
 Despite a strong emphasis on renewable technology, the sustainable school was using
more than double the good practice benchmark for electricity. Gas use was also
surprisingly high and in excess of good practice. Water consumption varied due to
problems with the rainwater harvesting technology. The report concluded that
sustainable technology performed inconsistently and required constant management to
be effective. Credit was given to the layout and the non bearing internal walls which were
designed for future flexibility.
 The 70s school was in dire condition, suffering from years of maintenance neglect and
was due to be replaced with a new school. Given the poor state of building fabric and
plant, it was unsurprising that the building had the highest carbon footprint of the
sample. However, the school had recently been ranked as “outstanding” by an OFSTED
inspection, reflecting high teaching standards.
 The Victorian school performed particularly well with regard to environmental quality and
comfort, having a similar carbon footprint to the sustainable school. Its performance
would be further improved through upgrading heating systems, double glazing and
insulating. The main negative of the school related to the inflexible nature of the internal
layout, which has not kept pace with modern teaching methods.
(BSRIA, 2007)
The conclusion is that older buildings can perform better than one might expect. They are usually
of higher build quality, which is a factor in their longevity and are typically constructed using local
materials. Also, high sustainable credentials on new schools are no guarantee that the buildings
will perform as expected. Before demolition, replacement buildings must be shown to justify the
resultant loss of embodied energy. This requires a far greater understanding of how buildings
perform and acknowledgement that proper investment in maintenance will yield greater
durability over time.

2.10 Zurich Insurance POE
Zurich is the only insurance provider to cover new PPP/PFI schools and therefore its influence on
the design of these buildings is far reaching. One respondent to a recent survey complained that
“prohibitively high premiums are the penalties LAs must bear for innovation“(GCU, 2007). By
nature, insurance companies are risk-averse and have agendas which are primarily driven by the
concerns of building longevity. Whilst this has benefit, these priorities can conflict with other
aspects of sustainability or indeed the practicalities of site constraints.
Zurich produces design guidance, based on its own POE, which stipulate minimum performance
requirements in order for new buildings to qualify for insurance cover. In this sense, they were
ahead of procurement teams in that their requirements, based on previous experience, now have
a wide ranging impact on the design of new schools. For example, Zurich recommends the
installation of sprinkler systems in all their schools. Interestingly, the document “The Design and
Protection of New School Buildings and Sites”, has distinct England and Scotland editions. This
may be due to the fact that 34% of the total costs of fire damage in 2002 were caused in Scottish
Schools. (Zurich, 2003).
Since the durability of a building is an important aspect of sustainability, the principles Zurich set
out are eminently worthy of incorporation. However, some aspects of their guidance documents
may cause conflict with other principles of good building practice. Desirable design features such
as roof overhangs or recessed entrances must be kept to a minimum to prevent youths
congregating (Zurich, 2003). The use of thermal mass and night cooling to moderate heat gains
throughout the day can necessitate opening windows, for which Zurich require security grilles, “at
the very least”. For earth tubes, management regimes will be required to prevent the build up of
rubbish and unauthorised access (Zurich, 2003).
Of particular note, is the fact that if timber cladding (often proposed by designers as a carbon
neutral material) exceeds 26% of the envelope, insurance underwriting is prohibited (Zurich,
2005). Artificial sports pitches are a common feature in new schools, which, Zurich identify as
vulnerable to flooding. Location of pitches should be such that surface water run-off from
adjacent slopes is avoided, although in practice, this can be difficult to achieve since LAs have
limited land available.

2.11 Assessment of Recent Design Quality in Schools
In 2007, Audit Scotland commissioned BRE to carry out an assessment of a representative sample
of recently completed Scottish Schools. The buildings were appraised using BRE’s Design Quality
Indicator POE method, which categorises buildings into architectural quality, environmental
engineering, user comfort, whole life costs, detail design and user satisfaction (Audit Scotland,
2008).
The results revealed that most of these schools were at a standard below good practice levels,
falling short in terms of environmental comfort, sustainability and design quality. Additionally,
refurbished schools were significantly below good practice standards and fared worse than the
new build sample, although the best classroom layout dated from 1950. Further detail is required
on this finding, particularly in light of the BRESCU comparative study described above and the
potential loss of embodied energy. Little difference in quality was noted in schools procured
between PFI and traditional funding mechanisms (BRE, 2007).
Although the matrix data did not clarify the nature of problems, helpful key findings from the BRE
report were identified in appendices. For example, it was noted that many new schools had
significant problems with natural day-lighting. Glare from windows made whiteboards difficult to
read, necessitating blinds to be drawn in classrooms and the constant use of artificial lighting.
Design professionals were deemed to be unaware of brightness management principles in
relation to this finding.
Most schools had less than 1% Average Day Light Factor (ADLF), necessitating the constant use of
artificial lighting. (Daylight displacement of artificial lighting starts at 2% ADLF and becomes
significant at 4% ADLF). It was noted that these schools would be uninhabitable during power
cuts.
Natural ventilation systems paid scant regard to window design, with the result that problems of
draughts and thermal comfort were encountered in cold weather. The majority of classrooms
lacked sufficient opening windows and where they were provided, restrictors frequently
prevented adequate ventilation. Moreover, there were seldom separate high and level openers
for intake and exhaust air. CO₂ levels in teaching spaces were reported at levels in range between
2200ppm (2.6l/s/p) to 3500ppm (1.5l/s/p), well above the maximum recommended by the World
Health Organisation to avoid health hazards. The effect of this was poor internal environment
resulting in a 5-10% loss of cognitive function in these areas.

Assembly halls lacked distinct supply and extract air paths for ventilation, with the result that
occupants resorted to opening doors to provide replacement air. This created problems for
thermal comfort in these spaces. Moreover, ventilation designs did not recognise the multi-
functional use of these spaces i.e. exam halls requiring five times the air change rate of sports
halls.
These are important and useful findings. Further research is now required to clarify why these
problems are happening and to propose remedial measures by with they can be resolved.
2.12 Summary of Literature Review
Sustainable Schools is a broad ranging term, which has been brought under control by the
application of Environmental Assessment methods, most notably, BREEAM. Presently, EAMs are
used to appraise design and construction methods for evidence of sustainability. However, the
energy performance and thermal comfort of highly rated schools requires measurement post
occupancy, to gauge the effectiveness of this assessment tool.
Initial feedback from school reports is disappointing, with a lack of time for quality briefing and
design development at the initial stages of the project reported as a significant problem. If one
applies the 80/20 rule to the procurement process, valuable adjustments to the brief can be
provided with relatively little impact on the overall cost and/or programme, providing this is done
at the early stages.
The literature review has revealed that a great deal of research has been gathered on the
technical shortcomings of new school buildings, although it appears there is difficulty in using this
knowledge to influence outcomes on future projects. In essence, this is because Design Quality
Indicators – the currently favoured POE method – tend to measure what is happening, rather than
looking at why things are going wrong. This is due to the inherent desire to facilitate comparison
with other schools but it can obscure the practical issues. Further investigation is required into the
influence of procurement on quality and to identify possible areas where methods can be
improved. Additionally, there is little information in the public domain which compares energy
performance in practice against design expectations. The following chapter will discuss an
appropriate methodology to investigate the knowledge gaps which have been identified.

3.0 Methodology
3.1 Research Design
The literature review outlined current research into assessing the effectiveness of new schools
through POE, using Design Quality Indicators. Whilst these findings are useful and convenient to
present in graph format, the abstract nature of DQI scoring does not explain in practical terms,
where things are going wrong. However, occupant and client feedback is occasionally identified in
the Appendices of these studies, which gives some insight into actual problems. To develop
research in the field, the aim of this thesis was to gather feedback from other key protagonists in
construction teams, to find out where the problems are happening in current procurement
methods. In this way, as well as having an objective measure of “quality” across the school estate,
the aim was to establish key recommendations to overcome the problems.
It was noted in the literature review that research in the field has been focussed on isolated
aspects of environmental performance (DC, 2005). Real life situations are more complex and in
recognition of this fact, qualitative methods were chosen for the research. Additionally, several
complimentary methods of research were used to collect the widest possible range of data. By
applying the triangulation research method (Denscombe, 1998), the aim was to produce a
rounded picture of the performance of new schools, where findings from one line of investigation
could illuminate or corroborate another. The primary data gathering was carried out over a
twelve week period from September to November 2009.
The research instruments used for the thesis were as follows:
 Literature review of Sustainable School guidance and case studies
 Analysis of published Post Occupancy Evaluation
 Energy questionnaire survey
 POE of recently completed schools
 Interviews of key informants
3.2 Research Process
The starting point for the research was a review of Post Occupancy reports, carried out on
recently completed schools which are now published on the Scottish Executive website (Scottish
Exec, 2008). These were used to gain an overview of current best practice in the field and to
establish a range for the study. This process identified that specific data on energy consumption
and thermal comfort is presently lacking from published POE studies. Selected critiques of these
reports are included in appendix A.

As a follow up exercise, ten of these schools were subsequently contacted by means of a brief
postal questionnaire to establish how well they met their predicted energy targets and to find out
possible causes of variances. Questions submitted in the energy questionnaire were as follows:
 What are the school’s annual usage for gas and electricity?
 Is this on a par with what was expected at design stage?
 Is there a divergence from design levels of consumption and if so are there explanations?
Difficulty was experienced with this method in establishing a correct point of contact for the
survey; commitment was variable and the response rate was low. Completed questionnaires are
published in appendix B. Although data from this investigation was incomplete, the issue of IT
growth, corroborated later in the POE research was highlighted. Despite the initial enthusiasm of
all the schools contacted, problems in undertaking the questionnaire suggested that an
awareness of energy consumption data is presently lacking at the management level.
During this time, contact was made with the Education department of the Scottish Executive. As a
means to clarify findings from the questionnaire survey, it was proposed that more detailed
investigations should be carried out on a number of schools. After a general enquiry to Scottish
Education Departments, East Lothian Council contacted the researcher, volunteering a number of
schools for POE research. These included new build and refurbishment models, all completed
within the last five years. Moreover, both PPP and traditional procurement methods were
included in the sample, giving useful diversity.
Post Occupancy Evaluations were carried out for each school, using the “walk through interview”
methodology recommended by the Scottish Executive (Scottish Exec, 2005). A feature of this
methodology is that it is time consuming to do and therefore only allowed for a limited sample
within the project constraints. However, it is more personal and can provide a better depth of
information from participants. Furthermore, by conducting interviews with key informants on a
particular sample, it also confirms validity and accuracy. To summarise, this POE methodology was
chosen in preference to DQI scoring for the following reasons:
 to produce qualitative data, presently lacking from current research in the field
 to keep the investigation as open as possible
 to avoid pre-coded questions influencing outcomes
 to gain a better insight into the realities of practical situations
 it was appropriate for the detailed review of a limited sample

Given the desire to present qualitative data, the POE was central to the investigation and thus
reports have been included chronologically in the results section. Analysis of the findings is dealt
with separately in a later section of the thesis.
3.3 Critique of the Research Methodology
Triangulation methodology, whereby several lines of enquiry are used to investigate the issues
being examined was chosen as the appropriate research method for this thesis. The relative
merits and disadvantages of this approach are discussed in this section.
A negative aspect of triangulation methodology is that due to limitations of resource, each
process was to some extent, more simplified than might have been the case with a single research
method. It is also noted that this can be a controversial methodology, with constructivist thinking
disputing the notion of multiple methods converging on a single “truth” (Denscome, 1998).
Additionally, observational findings are subject to personal interpretation, which can influence
the conclusions drawn. However, triangulation methodology was considered the most
appropriate route to gain a fuller understanding of the data produced. This is a reaction to
previous quantitative DQI research in the field, which has identified shortcomings in quality but
fails to reveal the true nature of the problems. It is also noted that within the time constraints of
the thesis, failure of a single line of enquiry (e.g. questionnaires as above) would have been
catastrophic for the research proposal.
Credibility of this thesis, to some degree, may be measured by the ability of others to replicate
the results, which can be a criticism of qualitative research. However, in essence POE is simply a
method of reporting real life situations, in collaboration with users and building teams. The
findings are generally striking and unambiguous. Assuming the research was carried out by others
with some background in constructing schools, similar findings would be reported. It is
acknowledged that analysis of the POE reports required personal interpretation but this is no
different from the analysis of quantitative data. Moreover, by using several complimentary lines
of enquiry, the chance of correctly interpreting the data was increased.

4.0 Results
The following sections outline the reports from POE case studies carried out at East Lothian
schools, arranged in chronological order.
The purpose of the building “walk-round” and interviews was to gain practical insight into building
usability and the environmental performance of recent upgrading works. The interviewees
reported that no post occupancy evaluation had been done on the building prior to this
investigation. The reports begin with a summary of observations from the building walk round
and conclude with salient points raised in interviews. Recommendations for the schools are
presented in the conclusions of each report.
4.1 POE Case Study 1 – Musselburgh Grammar PPP
4.1.1 Background
Musselburgh Grammar school is the largest school in East Lothian, with a school roll of 1310
pupils (HMIE, 2006). It is located in the Inveresk area of Musselburgh and the present campus
comprises 3 distinct building phases. The original building dates from 1930 but it was extended in
the 1970s. It was subject to a PPP contract, incorporating refurbishment and minor extension
between 2002 and 2005.
The recent refurbishment programme was temporarily disrupted by the insolvency of the original
contractor Ballast Ltd and completed further to the appointment of Balfour Beatty. Since the
completion of the PPP refurbishment, the facility is managed by FES FM. Her Majesty’s Inspectors
of Education (HMIE) report of 2006 has identified that attainment standards have generally
improved across the curriculum since the completion of refurbishment works (HMIE, 2006).
4.1.2 Summary of Findings
The PPP refurbishment works comprised three main areas:
 Upgrade to M+E provision
 Complete window replacement and over-clad
 Upgrading of facilities as necessary for DDA compliance.
 Extension to existing entrance area.
Date of Site Visit: 09.10.09
Weather: Fair - 15 ˚C.
Interviews: John McInley, Janitor; Stewart MacKinnon, Deputy Head.

One of the principle findings during the walk round was a constant fluctuation in temperature
around the building, with some areas being too hot and others too cold.
It was evident that replacement window design for the classrooms was inadequate, with only a
small opening hopper at the base.
Further remedial modifications include the provision of hold open devices to main corridor doors,
allowing movement of air and heat loss, albeit relatively uncontrolled. Despite this adaptation, it
was reported that conditions in classrooms were intolerable during summer months.
Conversely, the new maths classrooms, built as part of the recent extension works were generally
deemed to be too cold. Concerns were raised regarding the level of insulation provided, which
should be investigated. It was reported that trickle vents are occasionally taped up by the
teachers who perceive the draughts to be a problem.
To increase the free opening area,
window restrictors have
subsequently been removed as a
remedial measure. However, for
valid health and safety reasons,
barriers have been erected in
front of windows, which
unfortunately reduce day-lighting
levels.
Fig 4.1.2 – Window restrictor removal
The extension was deemed to be
a positive enhancement, although
security measures required
improvement by provision of an
intermediate control zone.
Fig 4.1.1 – Extension at Main Entrance

A number of the classrooms inspected had IT equipment and lighting on, although the rooms
were unoccupied at the time. It was reported that despite requests, some teachers did not
consider switching off equipment a priority, when not in use.
Generally, it was felt that the space provision was below area, particularly in social / circulation
areas. Some areas were inadequately finished and sealed, particularly in the technical department
where air infiltration around openings was acute. Remedial works to address this source of heat
loss should be investigated.
This suggests that there is insufficient space within the building for distribution and/or lack of
funding for service trenches, which is a hazard of refurbishment.
4.1.3 Janitor Interview
Mr John McGinley has worked in a building maintenance capacity for Musselburgh Grammar for
20 years, although he is now employed directly by FES FM.
One of the main problems JM noted was a widespread failure of users to close down IT
equipment when not in use (evidenced during the walk round). It was also noted that artificial
lighting was rarely switched off when rooms were unoccupied.
JM had a strong complaint regarding the lack of storage throughout the building. There was a
particular lack of cleaner cupboards and those that were available often lacked a sink. This meant
that cleaners had to empty their buckets in teaching spaces eg science areas. This has obvious
Curiously, mechanical pipe-
work from the boiler house was
distributed on the outside of
the building, with implications
for heat loss.
Fig 4.1.3 – compromises to services
distribution

concerns for health and safety and he felt that had he been consulted during design phase, this
would not have happened.
Further areas of concern were the constant need to replace damaged ceiling tiles through
vandalism and the lack of proper draught proofing / insulation to some areas.
His view was that the refurbishment was partially successful and that compromises had been
made due to existing operational constraints. He considered that a better solution would have
been a completely new building but was aware that the temporary occupation of 1300 pupils may
have made this an impractical proposition.
4.1.4 Interview with Deputy Head Teacher
Stewart MacKinnon was closely involved in the refurbishment programme and is the main point
of contact between the school and the Forth Electrical Services Facilities Maintenance (FES FM)
team. He reported that the project, although disruptive to the daily functioning of the school was
generally well managed. Relations between members of the construction team during
procurement phases were highly strained at times. However, opportunity for input during the
design process was deemed satisfactory with several client-led design changes resulting in an
improved solution.
The layout design was deemed fit for purpose, although the environmental performance of the
school is an ongoing problem for the management team. SMK: “From the day after the new
windows were installed, the building had overheating problems. Although it’s reasonably OK at
this time of year we have serious problems in summer and winter.”
Further frustrations were reported regarding the daily management of the school, due to the
delegation of facilities management to an independent company. One example cited, was the
ongoing refusal of the FM team to permit litter bins on upper floors, resulting in constant litter
problems. Much of the Deputy Head Teacher’s (DHT) time was also given over to the daily signing
off of maintenance reports for items which would previously have been dealt with as a matter of
course. Another complaint was the fact that toilets were only cleaned once a day, which given
their level of use, was deemed inadequate.
On the matter of the energy questionnaire forwarded as the initial research exercise, SMK
reported that the school do not have access to data relating to energy consumption of the
building and that FES FM should be contacted in this respect. However, he noted that a meeting
was due to be held between the school and FES FM the following week regarding concerns raised
on building energy consumption.

4.1.5 Conclusion to Case Study 1
Musselburgh Grammar PPP will be affected by the Climate Change (Scotland) Act 2009 which sets
out year-on year reductions for carbon emissions in public buildings (Scottish Exec, 2009). With
data on energy consumption managed remotely by the FM team, occupiers are presently unable
to gauge how their behaviour directly impacts on this. Daily targets for the school’s energy
performance based upon real time monitoring and with proper marshalling, could result in
significant savings.
Over-heating is a significant problem in the school, which was attributed to the growing demands
of Information Technology (IT) equipment and failure of the replacement window design.
Addressing the first problem will require a cultural change in procurement strategies, since IT is a
direct supply item by Local Authorities and effectively outside design team control. There is also a
need for education to make users aware of the cumulative impact of leaving lights and equipment
on when rooms are unoccupied.
The window design was inadequately developed to take cognisance of the specific ventilation and
day-lighting requirements for each classroom. Given that this component has a profound
influence on environmental performance and energy use, its design resolution should be
prioritised on future projects. Moreover, an assessment of the adequacy of existing fenestration
should be made before refurbishment. As a remedial measure, the window installation would be
improved by the introduction of high level openers to increase classroom ventilation by stack
effect. External shading could also be deployed to control solar gain, although this would require a
free standing structure, due to the difficulty of fixing back through new cladding.
Refurbishment of the 1970s block was the least successful aspect of the works from both an
environmental comfort and services distribution perspective. This is due to the inherent
constraints of existing floor to floor heights, fenestration and construction methods. Partial
demolition should be considered on future projects where sustainability will be compromised by
the existing fabric, although it is noted that this may require the provision of temporary
accommodation during building works.

4.2 POE Case Study 2 – Windygoul Primary Design and Build
4.2.1 Background
Windygoul Primary School, completed in November 2007, is a custom designed new building,
erected on a green field site, to serve the large new housing scheme on the adjacent sites.
The school was the Carbon Trust’s Low Carbon Building winner of 2008 and was awarded a Silver
Flag eco award in the same year.
The building is single storey throughout and its layout is organised around a central courtyard.
The rooms are generally light and airy with landscaped areas around the building which serve to
create a general sense of well being. Rooms were comfortable, although it was perceived by the
writer that temperatures in some rooms were slightly high.
The building is naturally ventilated, which is supplemented by mechanical ventilation in the main
hall. The building has natural day-lighting throughout its main spaces and much of the circulation
benefitting from views to a landscaped courtyard. Solar tubes provide natural day-lighting to
other areas.
Weather: Sunny- 16 ˚C.
Interviews: Jimmy Bonner, Janitor; Ruth Johnstone, Deputy Head.
It is owned and managed
exclusively by East
Lothian Council and was
conceived as an Eco
School. It was largely
subsidised through
developers’
contributions.
Fig 4.2.1 – Plan of Windygoul
Primary.

Classrooms have a sloping ceiling with windows at both sides of the plan to provide cross
ventilation and natural lighting. Fenestration is generally configured so that openers are provided
to the full elevation. Teleflex and electric openers are provided to high level openers.
The building is constructed in timber frame “breathing wall” which has been highly insulated with
warm-cell insulation. Other sustainable features include Photovoltaic (PV) cell roof glazing, sedum
roof and timber composite windows and cladding.
Due to unforeseen pressure on school roll, the building was due to be extended imminently,
which is surprising so soon after completion. This may reflect an unexpectedly family-orientated
demographic within the new housing development and the continued pressure of Edinburgh
commuting.
Solar glare was observed in
the main dining hall (south
facing) and clerestory
glazing in classrooms,
although the latter had
solar control blinds.
Fig 4.2.2 – Glare to dining rooms
/ PV glazing with electricity
monitor on wall.
The classrooms have
sliding doors which open
on to “break out” spaces
adjacent to the courtyard.
Fig 4.2.3 – internal courtyard –
planting carried out by staff and
pupils post occupancy.

The kitchens were due to undergo refurbishment works further to complaints from the catering
team regarding the difficulty of prepping food below worktop mounted storage cupboards. It is
noted that the design of commercial kitchen units is principally done by supplier subcontractors,
and this may reflect a lack of direct consultation with end users.
Mr Bonner was highly enthusiastic about building usability and when pressed, advised that he
couldn’t find one fault with the design! This implies the building works well and is generally fit for
purpose. The main recurring problem he reported was a lack of daily hot water at 6am, when
cleaners carried out their duties.
The school has under floor heating and is served by four boilers delivering 80kW. Minor tweaking
to the heating system was possible and carried out periodically without reverting to the BMS
control centre in Haddington.
Passive Infrared (PIR) units were fitted as standard to lighting but as part of the daily routine,
these are over-ridden by switching lights off when not in use, to keep energy use to a minimum.
JB reported that generally teachers were co-operative in switching off lights and IT equipment
when not in use.
4.2.4 Interview with Head Teacher
Ruth Johnstone was generally positive about the school and considered the environmental
comfort within the classrooms to be good. She reported that the arrangement of electronic white
board and fixed roller boards did not work particularly well, ergonomically. Further consultation
JB advised that the school
was not a community school
in the sense that the building
was open to members of the
public but advised that the
hall was available for let to
external groups.
Fig 4.2.4 - Good way-finding at
entrance.

during the construction process could have improved the arrangement to give better wall space
for display.
A further concern related to the conflict of natural lighting washing out the electronic white
boards. Although blinds to rooms were provided, RJ reported that full black out blinds are
necessary to see video presentations. This indicates a conflict here between the desire to provide
natural day-lighting to save energy and the requirement to revert to black-out blinds / artificial
lighting when using this teaching aid.
Since the school have full ownership of the building, they are able to adapt and improve as funds
permit, without negotiation through an FM consortium. This saves time and increases flexibility,
whilst enhancing the sense of personal responsibility amongst users. Landscaping of the courtyard
area by teachers and pupils has improved this amenity through their personal efforts. Moreover,
greater user co-operation in managing energy consumption was evident during the walk round.
This may suggest that where ownership and control of the school is retained post occupancy,
there are benefits for building performance. To gain better insight into this situation, particularly
in the context of PPP procurement, this is an area which should be researched further.
Fig 4.2.5 – Good Natural Day-lighting to Nursery Classroom

The building generally functions well and is justifiably promoted by the Scottish Executive as an
exemplar of good quality sustainable design. However, the POE identified solar glare and heat
gain in some areas. Despite this, feedback from users was universally positive in relation to
thermal comfort, which indicates increased tolerance; either due to the phenomenon of
“aesthetic /usability” effect (Lidwell, Holden et al, 2003) or the greater sense of building pride /
ownership described above.
A problem was identified regarding the supply of hot water out of normal hours of occupation. It
is undesirable to run the boilers additionally to produce a relatively small amount of water and
other solutions should be investigated e.g. a small supplementary water heater. This problem may
have been identified during design phases had the Council cleaning team been consulted at the
appropriate time.
Despite the successes of natural day-lighting and ventilation, problems are reported in the use of
IT whiteboards, with requests from teachers for black out blinds. This appears to indicate a
conflict in priorities, which undermines both usability and energy efficiency. It is noted that
despite ongoing progress with regard to building performance, there are no regulations which
cover the use and deployment of IT. Consideration should be given to the management and
appropriateness of IT specifications within the context of sustainability and resultant heat gains.
Quality of finishes and co-ordination throughout the building was superior to the other schools
visited. Despite being traditionally funded, Windygoul was constructed under a design and build
contract, similar to the PPP contracts. This suggests that there may be conflicting agendas in PPP
consortiums, where members of the construction team wear more than one hat. For example,
design and installation of Mechanical and Electrical equipment (M+E) may be done by one team
who are also part of the funding consortium, which can make site roles and co-ordination less
straightforward.

4.3 POE Case Study 3 – North Berwick High PPP
4.3.1 Background
North Berwick High school serves North Berwick and the surrounding rural area. It has a school
roll of 930 pupils and achieved a “very good” performance in all categories of a recent HMIE
report (HMIE, 2009).
The school is due to undergo further extension works imminently to serve the on-going expansion
of the surrounding locale.
Similar to Musselburgh Grammar, refurbishment works were disrupted by the insolvency of the
original contractor, Ballast Ltd and were subsequently completed by Balfour Beatty. Since the
completion of the PPP refurbishment, the facility is managed by FES FM.
The report will begin with a summary of findings from the building walk round and conclude with
salient points raised during interviews.
Weather: Inclement - 12 ˚C.
Interviews: David Sibbald, Janitor; Colin Sutherland, Head Teacher.
The present campus comprises
four distinct building phases.
The original building dates from
1939 and was extended in 1960.
A further extension took place
in 1997, before it was subject to
a PPP refurbishment and minor
extension between 2002 and
2005.
Fig 4.3.1 – main entrance

The refurbishment works comprised four main areas:
 Complete window replacement
 Creation of new dining / social spaces.
From a thermal comfort perspective, North Berwick High is reasonably successful, with users
reporting general satisfaction with environmental performance. However, it would appear that
the refurbishment of existing areas was limited by budget as some finishes are of inferior quality
to Musselburgh Grammar. Areas of terrazzo flooring were in poor condition and are in urgent
need of renewal.
While new ceilings had been
introduced (and lowered)
throughout to conceal services
distribution; within rooms, all
conduit is generally surface
mounted, which suggests this
element was not co-ordinated
on site.
Fig 4.3.2 – White board / surface
mounted conduit.

Fig 4.3.4 – landscaped courtyard
This may be due to the relatively dense nature of the building which is organised around several
courtyards, thus reducing solar gain. Some air infiltration was discernable at window jambs, which
suggests gaps due to poor installation or detail design.
The dining room amenity has been pleasantly enhanced by landscaping to the internal courtyard
which was done in conjunction with the pupils.
Although the main entrance was obvious, signage announcing the school was ineffective and way-
finding signage in the building could be improved.
Fig 4.3.3 – North facing glazing
obscured by solar control blinds (for
whiteboard).
The window design for
Musselburgh Grammar has
been replicated at North
Berwick but thermal comfort
within the building appears to
be within acceptable limits.
Fig 4.3.5 – Social / Dining Area

David Sibbald is a former pupil and is involved in running sports clubs for the school after hours. In
his view, the level of zoning for heating in the building was inadequate for the size of the building
and did not take proper cognisance of room orientation. This means that rooms are often heated
when not in use or have differential heating requirements, due to solar gain.
With regard to the refurbishment, he noted that the copula sky light in the boiler room, although
an impressive architectural feature was a notable source of heat loss. Poor draught sealing to
main entrance doors was a perpetual source of complaint for nearby admin staff during the
winter months.
In general, he felt that most teachers did not consider energy conservation a priority, with open
windows, IT and lights being a perennial problem in unoccupied rooms. Instances were also
reported of poor understanding of system controls e.g. reported instances of air conditioning and
heaters being operated simultaneously.
No operational problems were noted with regard to building management and cleaning regimes.
4.3.4 Interview with Head Teacher
Mr Sutherland advised that he was not closely involved with the building works, with the school’s
interests being represented by his colleague Colin Hutchieson, who has since retired. The process
of construction was clearly disruptive to the operation of the school and quite painful for all
concerned.
It was deemed that the building works were fit for purpose, although finishes were generally of a
mediocre quality. CS believed that the main advantage of the refurbishment option was larger
rooms and generous corridors. He was philosophical about the build quality, given his experience
of other schools.
CS reported that IT use has increased, approximately 10 fold in the last decade, from two library
computers plus forty admin workstations to around four hundred computers now. Given that the
fabric of the building is largely unchanged, the implications for increased heat gains and energy
are significant; particularly when one considers this is happening in every school.
Teachers complain that they require black-out blinds to use white boards properly.
CS regarded the dining space as the most successful aspect of the refurbishment works.

Build quality for the refurbishment works at North Berwick High may have been constrained by
time and cost and there was evidence of poor service co-ordination. However, thermal comfort
was good reflecting the inherent quality of the existing fabric and building design. Energy could be
saved by increasing the level of control to heating zones so that fewer rooms are unnecessarily
heated during periods of low occupation.
It appears that a standardised window design has been rolled out across the PPP schools, which
although cost effective, does not perform as well as a bespoke solution. Heat loss from the
building would be reduced by remedial draught proofing to doors and windows, although this is
only possible where gaps are visible. Primarily, window installation requires to be better
controlled on site to avoid this situation from the outset, by proper sizing openings. Consideration
should also be given to insulating and lining out below the boiler room cupola.
Dependence on IT systems is steadily increasing along with the burden on electricity. Like the
other schools, there is conflict between the desire for good day-lighting and teaching with
electronic whiteboards. As noted above, this may be due to direct supply i.e. elements are out-
with design team control. Short throw projectors should be specified on future projects to avoid
the tail off in luminance which necessitates closing window blinds. Given the anecdotal evidence,
users also require to be better informed in the use of controls and energy management good
practice.

4.4 POE Case Study 4 – Knox Academy PPP
4.4.1 Background
Knox Academy is located in Haddington and has a history dating back to the 14th
century,
although its name originates from a dedication made to John Knox in the 19th
century. The
present campus dates from 1930 and was substantially extended in the late 60s. Recently, the
building was extended and refurbished as part of the East Lothian Schools PPP, completed in
2005. The school roll at the time of the recent HMIE inspection was 865 (HMIE, 2007).
The layout of the building is relatively complex, featuring multi-levelled accommodation
organised around four internal courtyards. Of the three PPP schools visited, upgrading works to
Knox Academy were the most extensive and comprised:
 Complete window replacement
 Remodelling of Existing Rooms
 Extension to form new teaching blocks and gym halls.
Weather: Sunny - 15 ˚C.
Interviews: Martin Duddin, DHT; Ken Milne, School Liaison Officer; George Brunton, Janitor.
Fig 4.4.1 – Knox Academy,
Main Entrance

Way-finding around the building was confusing, particularly at the main entrance which was
completely obscured by the new extension. However, as can be seen from the sketch below, this
is not what the architect intended.
Both the design and build quality and finishes were of a significantly higher standard than the
other PPP schools, with successful deployment of roof-lights and courtyard providing day-lighting
and amenity to corridors. It is noted that additional circulation area was created by the
remodelling of the main assembly hall which has been sensitively handled, although its adjacency
to the main hall has proven controversial (see interviews below).
Similar problems to the previous PPP schools were noted with regard to heat build up in the
classrooms and failure of the window design necessitating removal of restrictors. However, when
queried, teachers did not report major problems of glare affecting whiteboards. This may be due
to the security grilles obscuring most of the window.
To overcome issues of window operation and cooling, high level openers could be introduced to
rooms with higher ceilings. However, in the majority of new teaching accommodation this is
compromised by reduced ceiling heights and other avenues to reduce heat loads should be
considered.
The original proposal has a
portal formed as an extension
of the curving plane on the
facade of the adjacent blue
block.
Fig 4.4.2 – 3D view of Knox Academy
Fig 4.4.3 – Technical room in refurbished area Fig 4.4.4 – Low ceilings to new classrooms

Mr Brunton had been in his current role prior to the commencement of the PPP programme,
although his employment had been transferred to FES FM under TUPE legislation.
He felt that the design would have been improved through better consultation and had inherent
flaws fundamentally affecting the management of the school. He reported severe congestion in
corridors and problems with the stair design due to gaps between stringers and wall attracting
litter.
He also reported that there was a profound lack of cleaners’ stores, with electrical cupboards
doubling up for this function. This echoes findings from the Musselburgh Grammar POE in case
study 1.
It was felt that there were insufficient heating zones in the building, with occupation of one or
two rooms necessitating activation of an entire wing of accommodation. Again, this is a finding
which is replicated at North Berwick High School.
Extract ventilation to the Home Economics department was introduced post occupancy further to
complaints from staff. It is surprising that this element was excluded from the original briefing
documents.
Cracks in flooring identified during the walk round were attributed to shrinkage in the slab and
were due to be remedied through introduction of movement joints in the vinyl. Knowledge of this
issue should avoid this situation on future projects.
4.4.4 Interview with Head Teacher and Schools Liaison Officer
The refurbishment programme for Knox Academy started in 1999 through competitive dialogue
between three bidders. Knox Academy was one of six projects incorporated into the PPP bid and
was deemed to be the most difficult, due to integration of refurbishment and new-build, with
what was already a complex layout.
It was felt that the successful bidding team had the best design solution for Knox Academy,
although subsequent comments from the users were either not incorporated or done so at the
expense of other accommodation. User influence on the design process was further
compromised by the insolvency of the original contractor and upon appointment of another
contractor, previously agreed changes were reversed. This highlights the consultation issue
reported in the literature review.

Colin Gordon MSc_Final_Thesis January 2010

Colin Gordon MSc_Final_Thesis January 2010

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