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2. Linguistics is a science that implies
a serious and deep study of
languages
It aims to demonstrate how
peoples have used, deal with
So on as a system of hums and develop a language day by
communication and from an day in order to face and
internal point of view overcome, different socio-
linguistic obstacles
PRELIMINARY
NOTIONS
It may be said that linguistics the Deneen (1966,1) and Richard
cientifics study of language in (1999,215) “Linguistics” is the
general, and the language in Scientifics study of languages as a
particular system of human communication”

3. LINGUISTICS BACKGROUND
Linguistics was used in the Philology is a branch of
middle of the 19th century. It is Scholars such as Jacob
Linguistics that studies
a newer approach to the study Grimm,Franz Boop and
languages change and
of languages August Schleicher.
languages relationship.
Anthropological Linguistics: It deals with the
Sociolinguistic: It studies how dialects differ relationship between languages and culture
between groups separated by certain sociial and has also been a major among linguistics
variables such as religion gender etc
Socio-Ethnic Linguistics: It focuses on the
functions of languages in our
Psycholinguitics: It is a discipline concerned societies, especially characterized by the
with relations between messages and the deep differences of class, ethnicity, gender
characteristics of individual who select and and generation i n order to promote
interpret them research into multilingual and multicultural
Computational Linguistics: It also known as
natural languages processing, is branch of
artificial intelligence that deals
analyzing, understanding and generating
the languages that humans naturally

4. It provides the theoretical and descriptive foundations for the investigation and solution of
languages-related problems, especially those of languages education
Kaplan argues that “early applied linguistics was dominantly associated with language teaching”
but “while the relationship continues in the present the field has diversified”. Applied
linguistics: An emerging discipline for the twenty-first
William Grabe examines the growing diversity of the field, and relationship of applied linguistics
to linguistics, in some detail. He notes the importance of the concept that “applies linguistics is
driven first by real-world problem s rather than theoretical explorations”

5. CONTRASTIVE OR
COMPARATIVE
LINGUISTICS
The term contrastive analysis stands for applied
contrastive studies, ACS, which deal with the practical Theoretical contrastive studies can
consequences of differences between contrasted be performed on the eleven of
languages for teaching purposes, bilingual analysis or phonology, lexicon, syntax, semantic
translation. s, pragmatics or text linguistics.
It is possible to refer to
the study, contrast or As a matter of
comparison of two or facts, comparative or The main problem of TCS is how to
more language contrastive linguistics contrast languages. Two objects of
structures, whose subject appears. analysis may appear either similar
matter is more specific or different. But it is obvious that
each level of linguistics analysis
will have its own criterion of
comparison

6. • It compares languages usually with
the aim of assisting language learning
by identifying important differences
between the learner s native and
target languages.
CONTRASTIVE • Contrastive linguistics deals merely
with present-day languages
• Originally known as comparative
philology is a branch of historical or
diachronic linguistics that is concerned
with comparing languages in order to
establish their historical relatedness.
COMPARATIVE • To maintain a clear distinction between
attested and reconstructed
forms, comparative linguistic prefix an
asterisk to any form that is not found in
surviving texts

8. FUNDAMENTALS FOR TEACHING
Students of applied linguistics intending to teach a foreign
languages. Such as English, French, Italian and so on as it is
their concern.
Students of modern FLs will benefit from language
specific, descriptive L courses will serve as an aid to their
own more autonomous learning and as a background to the
self-diagnosis and remediation of their errors, spoken and
writing

9. CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS
SYLLABUS
It is the study of the
ability of natural
language speakers
to communicate
more than which is
C onstractive Analysis od+f explicitly stated
sound systems involve
CONTRASTIVE PRAGMATICS
phonogical or phonetic
contrasts, relevant to
identyfying types of foreign The ability to understand
accent. another speaker´s
intended meaning is calles
pragmatic competence.
Syntax sees contrasts of three
kinds: structural, categorical and
functional. Students enjoy
Contrastive
rhetoric a popular investigating
and useful contrasts between
component of ways that different
languages textualise
which in the CL
genres such as news
class in bulletins, orbituaries,
contrastive genre ans so on.
analysis.

10. Other languages which are not derived The fundamental technique
In principle, every difference or
from the same ancestor aim not use the contrastive linguistics is to match
similarity between two or more related
contrastive method. Lexicostaatistics is up tolanguages by using a
languages should be explicable in terms
a method based on statistical analysis technique known as the contastive
of isolation or context analysis
of vocabulary method.
METHODOLOGY OF CONTRASTIVE LINGUISTICS
Semantic systems
might be done in Syntactical systems have to be
The phonological systems
isolation or in context analyzed in context due to the Morphological systems migth be done in isolated
due the denotation nature of the internal have must, they are to be or contextualized
and connotation components of the issues. done in isolation parametres
dimensions

11. Fries (1945):”The most
It reveals what is general and
efficient materials are those
what is languages specific and is
that are based upon a
the reforms important both the
scientific description of the
understanding of language in
languages.
general and for the study of the
individual languages compared
CONTRASTIVE Lado (1957) The basis of the
Johansson and Hofland (1994) contrastive analysis approach
“Language comparison is of ANALYSIS METHOD as the assumption that we can
great interest in the theoretical predict and describe
as well as an applied
perspective”
The term contrastive analysis is It was thought that a comparison on
especially associated with applied different levels
contrastive studies. (phonology, morphology, syntax,lexis
,culture) would identify points of
difference and provide results that
would be important in languages
teaching
Advocated as a means of predicting or
explaining difficulties of second languages
learners tongue in learning a particular target
language

12. Microlguistic: (James
1980:61)phonology, grammar, lexis.
Macrolinguistic: (James 1980:98) text
linguistics, discourse analysis.
What are the vowel and consonant phonemes in
MT and TL?
How is cohesion expressed in TM and TL?
NEW
TRENDS How do they differ in their
inventory, realization, and distribution?
How are the speech acts of apologizing and
requesting expressed in TM and TL?
What are the verbs of saying in MT and TL?
How are conversations opened and closed in
MGT and TL?

13. THE ROLE OF CORPORA
It is a body a texts, utterances, or other specimens
considered more or less representative of a language
characteristic
It supplies references to It develops listening The non-contrasts or near
descriptions of linguistics decoding and identities should like wise
phenomena in the students transcription notation be identified, described
mother tongue and ranked for strength
Descriptions of problems It does transfer analysis An error survey should be
of the same observable among languages to undertaken to verify
fact in the foreign bring into play corrective whether learners do
languages. phonology indeed commit the errors
predicted
The contrasts identified
It recognizes and uses the should be categorized and For teaching purposes, the
IPA conventional register. ranked in strength reflecting intending teachers are to
relative learning difficulty move directly on to the
design of remedial
classroom activities and
materials.

14. LANGUAGES Lists about 6912 living languages in the world up
2005.
The etchnologue now uses the standard, called ISO
639-3, include 7299 codes dealing with languages.
The number of languages and speakers throughout
symbols, morphemes, words and sentences used for human
the world are:
•Asia
It is an arbitrary structured system of utterances-
sounds, gestures, signs, and movements, written
Ethnology •Africa
•Pacific
•Americans
•Europe
communication.
The Summer
To distribute language all over the Institute, Etchnologue Survey lists
world six factors may be in descendent order the top
considered languages by number of native
speakers.
Most spoken
language
population of the
world  English (115) Chinese Portuguese
 French (35) Spanish Russian
 Arabic (24) English Japanese
Spanish (20) Bengali German
Russian (16) Hindu French
 German (9) Arabic
Mandarin (5).

15. BRIEF CLASIFICATION OF LANGUAGES
Verbal languages
Language Family Individual Language
It is a group of languages related by descent from
common ancestor, called the proto-languages of It is a language as a whole from the same family.
that family
Idiolect
Dialect
It is individual voice quality ,pitch, speech rhythm or writes
the overall system of a particular languages-
Particular way to using languages regional and
social
Colloquialism
Jargon
It is an informal expression, that is, an expression not used
Used by people who work in a particular in formal speech or writing
area or who have a common interest.
Example: Lawyers.
Slang
It is a language and its informal, using expressions that many would consider to be
grammatically imperfect and sometimes rude. It is not standard Example: teen´s
languages

16. NO VERBAL
LANGUAGES
It is a system of permanent written symbols. The three main sorts
of writing systems are:
Idiographic It´s a writing system which uses ideograms(symbols) to
Writing language represent whole words or concepts. Example Chinese
Syllabic Writing language It´s based or syllables which are represented by separate
symbols. Example Japanese.
Alphabetical It´s based on sounds- pronunciation and deals with alphabetical
Writing language symbols which represent consonant or vowel

17. Articulated Language
Deals with Phonetic Spelling. Few are the language whose writing systems, are based on
alphabets and phonetic alphabets.
SPANISH LANGUAGE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Spanish belongs the romance branch of English to belong to the western group of
the Indo-European language family the Germanic branch of the Indo-
Spoken a first language 352 million European language family. English might
second language speakers be considered the third-or fourth-largest
native langue in the world

18. LANGUAGE INCONSISTENCES
1. The same letter combination can refer to different sounds.
‹ consonant letter› cerda [ˈserda] casa[ˈkasa]
‹ vowel letter› steak [ˈsteyk˙] head[ˈhɛːd]
2. The same sound can be written with different letters or letter combination
wimen [ˈwɪmɪn] busy [ˈbɪzɪ]
bosque [ˈboske]
Vaso [ˈbaso]
3. Different dialects pronounce the same word differently.
pan [ˈpãn] Quito
pan [ˈpãŋ] Tulcan
water [ˈwɔtə] british english
water[ˈwɔɾːɚ ] ameriacan english

19. CLUSTER
Is a group of the same or similar elements gathered or
occurring closely together. Linguistically, a cluster occurs when there
are two or more successive vowels or consonants in spelling or utterance
VOWEL CLUSTER CONSONANT CLUSTER
This deals with pronunciation that students give
to synthetic word containing orthographic A consonant cluster also know as a consonant bled is a
vowel cluster the pronunciations associated group or sequence of consonants that appear together in
with vowel cluster spelling are among the most syllable without vowel between them
unpredictable letter sound correspondences.

20. INITIAL CLUSTERS MEDIAL CLUSTERS FINAL CLUSTERS
Two consonants may occur in both Intrasyllabic medial cluster Spanish has no
English and Spanish. CCV clusters in final
position while English
words containing from
/p, b, k, g, f/ + /l/ two up to four final
Intersyllabic meial clusters
Spanish /p, t, k, b, g, f/ + /ɾ/ consonant cluster.
English /p, t, k, b, g, f/ + /ɹ /
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Three consonants may occur in
English. CCCV
-V CC- /ˈo.bɾa/
/ˈo.bɾa/
-V CCV- -VCCC-
/spl/ /spl/ -VCCCV- /səbˈ.stæʃəl/ /səbˈ.stæʃəl/
/spɹ / /spʁ / -VCCCCV- -VCCCC-
/skɹ / /skʁ / /ˈkons.tɾuk.ˈsyon/ /ˈkons.tɾuk.ˈsyon/
/stɹ / /stʁ / -VCCCCCV-
/ˈkɔɹk.skɹuw/

21. PHONOLOGY
It studies the relevant, distinctive
and significant elements in a
language which are used to
establish difference in meaning.
Phonemics Phoneme is the smallest basic and
theoretical unit of language that
signals, establishes , and creates
entirely differences in meaning.
Is the study of the system of
phonemes of a language
It´s the study and description of the
speech sounds made by the human
Phonetics voice. The unit of phonetic is the
allophone.

22. Diacritic
It´s a mark placed over under or though a letter(or phonetic symbol) to show that it has a
sound value different from that of the same letter (or phonological symbol)

23. Alphabet
It is a system of characters arranged in a fixed conventional order to
symbolize sounds or letters used in a writing to represent speech
LATIN ALPHABET
LATIN ALPHABET AND INTERNACIONAL STANDARS

24. THE INTHERNACIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET
(IPA)
Was proposed and mainly accepted by linguistic, and created by the international
phonetic association (whose original members were language teachers in France 1886.
Published officially the first version in 1888.
Its main aim is promote the scientific study of phonetics and the
various practical applications of this science and its principle is one
symbol per every distinctive and relevant sounds.
The latest version of the international phonetic alphabet was
revised and updated by association in 2005

25. TRANSCRIPTION
It is a system of notation that represents utterances or partial
utterances of a language pronounced by people in general.
There are two kinds of transcription: Phonemic or Broad Transcription
and Phonemic or Narrow Transcription
NARROW TRANSRIPTION
BROAD TRANSCRIPTION
It is a notation that represents variants
Also identified as Phonemic Transcription it is of a specific phoneme. It captures as
the notation that represents utterances of a many as possible details which are
language by indicating only the significant represented by the diacritics provided in
and underlying sounds (phonemes) that the IPA. It is written between square
make up a word. it is written between slant brackets (phonemic brackets). [ ]
lines: //
STRESS
/ˈstudənt/ /ˈhət/ /plæɪ//spɪn/ [pʰæɪ] [tʰiː][ m] [kj̊ʉːt]
It is another important feature which is often represented in phonetic
and phonemic. Every single word has a stressed syllable. The vowel
sound of stressed syllable is often longer, louder and higher in pitch.
Stressed syllable use ( ˈ ). Secondary stressed syllable is use ( ˌ )

26. SIMBOLS USED FOR TRANSCRIPTION
STRESS MARK VERTICALE LINE
It shows the following syllable is stressed It shows a pause in phonetic transcription. I
(ˈ)
ANGLE BRACKETS DIVISION MARKER
They are used to enclose the spelling of It shows the boundaries between syllables. ·
the orthographic notation. ‹ ›
SLANT BRACKETS
DIACRITICS
Phonemic transcription uses them. / /
It shows the variation in the vowel or
consonant quality. Nasal or dark quality ̴
SQUARE BRACKETS
they are used around detailed phonetic
transcription. [ ]