3. Date of Publication : 9-6-2013

4. HORTFLORA RESEARCH SPECTRUM ISSN : 2250-2823
Volume 2(2), April-June, 2013
Contents
1. GAP : Non monetary way to manage faba bean
diseases—A Review
Anil Kumar Singh and Vijai Kr. Umrao 93-102
2. Influence of positions of bearing and methods of
harvesting on the quality of fruits—A Review
Priyamvada Pandey, Rajesh Kumar, Ayushi Tamta and
D.S. Mishra
103-108
3. Status of dry matter at harvesting stage in commercially
grown grape varieties under tropical climatic condition
R.G. Somkuwar, Roshni R. Samarth, J. Satisha, S.D.
Ramteke and Prerna Itroutwar
109-115
4. Performance of planting material on growth and yield of
turmeric under guava orchard
D.K. Singh, S. Aswal, G. Aswani and M.K. Shivhare 116-120
5. Optimization of planting density in carnation S. Karthikeyan and M. Jawaharlal 121-125
6. Evaluation of the incidence of powdery mildew
(Sphaerotheca fuliginea) on bottle gourd
Sashiyangba and L. Daiho 126-129
7. Integrated management of powdery mildew of gerbera
under polyhouse condition in Arunachal Pradesh
Sunil Kumar, Krishna S. Tomar, R.C. Shakywar and
M. Pathak
130-134
8. Influence of microbial, organic and inorganic sources of
nutrients on growth parameters of strawberry
Rubee Lata, Deepa H. Dwivedi, R.B. Ram and
M.L. Meena
135-138
9. Multiplication of bougainvillea cv. Torch Glory through
shoot tip cutting under mist chamber
K.. K. Singh, Tejpal Singh and Y.K. Tomar 139-144
10. Distribution pattern of diamondback moth, Plutella
xylostella (L.) on cabbage under Gangetic alluvial
condition of West Bengal
T.N. Goswami and A.K. Mukhopadhyay 145-149
11. Effect of spacing and plant architecture on yield and
economics of capsicum under net house conditions
Pravina Satpute, S.G. Bharad and Snehal Korde 150-152
12. Effect of length of cutting and concentration of IBA on
rooting in shoot tip cutting of sawani (Lagerstroemia
indica L.) under mist condition
K.K. Singh, A. Kumar, Y.K. Tomar and Prabhat Kumar 153-157
13. Some physical and frictional properties of Phule Mosambi
and Kinnow
F.G. Sayyad, S.S. Chinchorkar, S.K. Patel and
B.K. Yaduvanshi
158-161
14. Response of bio-regulators on horticultural traits of bell
pepper under protected condition
R.N. Singh and Sidharth Shankar 162-165
15. Effect of sowing dates on phytophthora blight of taro
(Colocasia esculenta var. antiquorum)
R.C. Shakywar, S.P. Pathak, Krishna S. Tomar and
M. Pathak
166-168
16. Bio-physical properties of the papaya ringspot virus
causing ringspot disease in papaya (Carica papaya L.)
S.K. Singh and Ramesh Singh 169-171
17. Effect of biofertilizers and presoaking treatments of
nitrate salts on yield and character association in corn (Zea
mays L.) yield
S.P. Tiwari, Arti Guhey and S.P. Mishra 172-174
18. Effect of different media, pH
and temperature on the radial
growth and sporulation of Alternaria alternata f.sp.
lycopersici
P.C. Singh, Ramesh Singh, Dinesh Kumar and
Vijay Kumar Maurya
175-177
19. Effect of weedicide in minimization of weed menance in
Nagpur Mandarin orchard
J. Singh, P. Bhatnagar and Bhim Singh 178-179
20. Impact of different fertigation levels on
morphophysiological traits and yield of cucumber under
greenhouse condition
S.P. Tiwari 180-181
21. Standardization of package of practices for zamikand
(Amorphophallus campanulatus Blume.) cultivation
Sanjive Kumar Singh, Naushad Khan and S.D. Dutta 182-183

5. GAP: NON MONETARY WAY TO MANAGE FABA BEAN DISEASES—
A REVIEW
Anil Kumar Singh* and Vijai Kr. Umrao1
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region, Patna 800 014 Bihar
1
Department of Horticulture, CSSS (PG) College, Machhra, Meerut-250 106 (U.P.)
*E-mail: anil.icarpat@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is, among the oldest crops in the world, attacked by a
wide range of pathogens although each of these diseases is quite destructive, when two or more
interact on the same plant, their combined effect becomes greater. Good agronomic practices
are in general non monetary interventions, discussed here under suitable heads, which can be
easily adopted by the farmers to manage faba bean disease smartly. It is an efficient and
excellent tool for effective disease-pest management in general and especially for soil borne
pathogens and diseases like chocolate spot,ascochyta blight and rot etc.
Keywords: Crop diversification, disease management, faba bean, good agronomic practices.
Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is among the oldest
crops in the world. Chinese used faba bean for food
almost 5,000 years ago, presently it is grown in 58
countries (Singh et al., 40). Probably one of the
best performing crops under global warming and
climate change scenario because of its unique
ability to excel under almost all type of climatic
conditions coupled with its wide adoptability to
range of soil environment (Rai et al., 31 and Singh
et al., 36). Being so incredible crop, serving human
society with potential; unfortunately in India it is
categorized as minor, unutilized, underutilized, less
utilized, and still not fully exploited crops (Singh et
al., 41 and Singh and Bhatt, 39). Faba bean is a
nitrogen-fixing plant, capable of fixing
atmospheric nitrogen, which results in increased
residual soil nitrogen for use by subsequent crops
and can be used as green manure having potential
of fixing free nitrogen (150-300 kg N/ ha). Faba
bean is seen as an agronomically viable alternative
to cereal grains (Singh et al., 38). It is good source
of lysine rich protein and good source of levadopa
(L-dopa), a precursor of dopamine, can be
potentially used as medicine for the treatment of
Parkinson’s disease. L-dopa is also a natriuretic
agent, which might help in controlling
hypertension. It is a common breakfast food in the
Middle East, Mediterranean region, China and
Ethiopia (Singh and Bhatt, 39). Numerous disease
causing agents, which prove a vital constraint in
realizing its potential production can be smartly
managed with help of good agronomic practices
(Singh et al., 37). Good agronomic practices are
discussed here under suitable heads, which can be
easily adopted by the farmers to manage faba bean
disease smartly.
Crop Diversification Good Agronomic Practice
Crop diversification is one of the major
components of diversification in agriculture. It is
frequently used term for diversification of cereal
cropping systems with non-cereals which include
oilseed, pulse, and forage crops etc (Hazra, 19 and
Singh et al., 41). Diversification of crop not only
improves variety of product, productivity and
economic sustainability but also improves
management of plant diseases. Monoculture and
monocropping are vulnerable to disease because of
their genetic uniformity (Hazra, 19, and Singh et
al., 37). It is often observed that after introduction
of a new variety with major resistance genes, the
affectivity of the resistance genes are lost due the
selection for corresponding virulence genes in the
disease-causing pathogen (Singh et al., 37).
Though the faba bean is attacked by a wide range of
pathogens, the most important faba bean diseases
are chocolate spot (Botrytis fabae), ascochyta
blight (Ascochyta fabae), rust (Uromyces viciae
fabae), broomrape (Orobanche crenata), and stem
HortFlora Research Spectrum, 2(2): 93-102 (April-June 2013) ISSN : 2250-2823
Received : 15.4.2013 Accepted : 20.5.2013

6. 94 Singh and Umrao
nematode (Ditylenchus dipsaci). Although each of
these diseases is quite destructive, when two or more
interact on the same plant, their combined effect
becomes greater. Diversified crop production
systems are closely associated with the management
of major diseases of faba bean. Crop diversification
include management of host reactions such as
choosing right crops and selecting appropriate
cultivar; disruption of disease cycles through
efficient cropping system and appropriate crop
rotation, removal of weeds and volunteer crop plants,
field inspection, fallow, flooding, deep ploughing,
soil solarisation, which involves a combination of
physical and biological process, adjusting planting
dates, irrigation, fertilization, sanitation, tillage etc.
and modification of the micro environment within
the crop canopy using tillage manipulation and
optimum plant stand are one of them. Further, inputs
and their utilization play a key role in the sustainable
disease management. Seed treatment, source, dose,
time and method of seeding, plant nutrition, weed
management and, pre and post-harvest management,
and documentation can also be utilized to manage
plant diseases.
Good Agronomic Practices (GAP) can be
classified in to three categories i.e. (1) Practices,
which are usually applied for agricultural purposes
not connected with crop protection, such as
fertilization and irrigation. They may or may not
have a positive or a negative side-effect on disease
incidence, (2) Practices that are used solely for
disease management, such as sanitation and flooding,
and (3) Practices, which are used for both agricultural
purpose and for disease management, such as crop
rotation. Deep ploughing and flooding are used
before planting while irrigation and fertilization can
be applied several times during the crop season for
disease management (Singh et al., 41).
Faba bean are grown under rainfed conditions
during the winter and typically rotated with cereals,
cotton (Gosypium hirsutum L.) or sugar beet (Beta
vulgaris L.) in the coastal regions. In China faba bean
is autumn-sown after rice (Oryza sativa L.), or
intercropped with cotton or maize in southern and
Western provinces (Zhang et al., 51). However,
the duration of the faba bean pre-crop effect has
not been studied in great detail, since it can be
confounded by the subsequent crops. It is also
observed significant yield increases (12%) in the
second cereal following faba bean compared to N
fertilized continuous cereals. Intercropping of
faba bean with cereals may be an efficient
management tool to control weeds; particularly if
no appropriate herbicides are available, or where
herbicides cannot be used such as in organic
farming systems (Hauggaard-Nielsen et al., 17).
Growing the cereal with faba bean will ensure
earlier canopy closure and soil cover, which can
otherwise be difficult to obtain with a
spring-sown faba bean crop. The intercropped
cereal will also generally compete better than faba
bean with weeds for water and nutrients, and
weed development in a faba bean-cereal
intercrops tend to be markedly lower than with a
sole faba bean crop (Shalaby et al., 33). Similarly,
there is now evidence indicating a reduction in
incidence and severity of disease in faba bean and
its intercrop component when the crops are grown
together rather than separately (Hauggaard-
Nielsen et al., 17). However, until the appropriate
investigations on the build-up of pathogenic
inoculums within intercropping systems have
been undertaken, it is still probably prudent to
ensure that neither of the intercropped
components occur more frequently in a rotation
than is desirable for sole crops, since it has not
been determined to which degree a faba bean–
cereal intercrop is able to break disease cycles.
Intercropping with faba bean
The benefits of intercropping are of special
interest in cropping systems, where the farmer
wishes to grow both faba bean and the
intercropped species (e.g. maize, wheat) and
intends using the grain on farm. This is because
there are not yet sufficient markets for mixed
grain (e.g. faba bean and wheat) even though low
cost separation machinery for the grain is
available. The advantages of intercropping are

7. derived from the ‘‘competitive interference
principle’’ (Vandermeer, 47), in which the
interspecific competition between intercrop
component species will be less than the
intraspecific competition in sole crops. This is
based on different growth patterns, more efficient
interception of light and use of water and nutrients
over the growing season, due to different patterns
of water and nutrient uptake by the intercropped
species (Singh et al., 37 and Willey, 47).
Faba bean effects on subsequent crops:
Faba bean can improve the economic value of
a following crop by enhancing the yield and/or
increasing the protein concentration of the grain.
Increased concentrations of inorganic N in the soil
profile after faba bean cropping and increased N
uptake by subsequent crops can result from ‘‘spared
N’’ remaining in the soil as a result of a relatively
inefficient recovery of soil mineral N compared to
other crops (Turpin et al., 43), the release of N
mineralized from above and below ground
residues, and/or from the impact of the labile
legume N on the balance between gross
mineralization and immobilization processes
undertaken by the soil microbial biomass
(Rochester et al., 32). Few studies have attempted
to ascertain the relative importance of each of these
pathways of N supply. Evans et al. (4) used a
multiple regression method to deduce that the soil
mineral N remaining at harvest of a grain legume
can be of greater significance in determining the
residual N effect in wheat than the N in crop
residues. The impact of faba bean on the N
dynamics of following crops is well documented.
For example, the residual N benefit to a winter
wheat from a previous spring-sown faba bean was
found to represent a savings of 30 kg fertilizer N/ ha
compared to a wheat-wheat sequence. A Canadian
five cycle rotation-study comparing a faba bean-
barley-wheat and a barley-barley-wheat rotation
showed that faba bean enhanced the average yield
in the subsequent barley and wheat crops by 21 and
12%, respectively, which was equivalent to
providing the cereals with around 120 kg N/ ha of N
fertilizer (Singh and Kumar, 35 and Wright, 50).
Important diseases of faba bean and their
management through GAP:
Among the various constraints, the diseases
have always been the major limiting factor for faba
bean cultivation. Faba bean is attacked by more
than 100 pathogens (Hebblethwaite, 20). The most
important fungal, bacterial and viral diseases are:
chocolate spot (Botrytis fabae and B. cinerea), rust
(Uromyces viciaefabae), black root rot
(Thielaviopsis basicola), stem rots (Sclerotiniatri
foliorum, S. sclerotiorum), root rots and
damping-off (Rhizoctonia spp.), downy mildew
(Pernospora viciae), pre-emergence damping-off
(Pythium spp.), leaf and pod spots or blight
(Ascochyta fabae), foot rots (Fusarium spp.),
bacterial common blight, brown spot and halo
blight, likewise viral diseases bean yellow mosaic
virus, bean true mosaic virus and bean leaf roll
virus (Van Emden et al., 44). Among foliar
diseases, chocolate spot Botrytis fabae), ascochyta
blight (Ascochyta fabae), and rust
(Uromycesviciae-fabae) are the major diseases (Ali
et al., 1). Root rot (Fusarium solani) can also cause
considerable yield losses in faba bean. In this
presentation crop diversification and good
agronomic practices based disease management
strategies are discussed based upon host tolerance,
judicious use of fertilizers and adoption of
appropriate cultural practices to minimize losses
caused by these diseases.
Anthracnose disease
Anthracnose of faba bean is major disease of
this crop throughout the world but causes greater
losses in the temperate region than in the tropics.
The losses can approach 100% when badly
contaminated seed is planted under conditions
favourable for disease development. Management
strategies for this disease include use of healthy
seed, crop rotation, tillage methods and promotion
of resistant varieties. The plant debris should be
GAP : Non-monetary way to manage faba bean diseases—A Review 95

8. 96 Singh and Umrao
either removed or deeply ploughed and buried
(Ntahimpera et al., 27).
Chocolate spot
Chocolate spot is the most important disease
caused by Botrytis fabae Sard, occurs almost
anywhere faba bean is grown. It causes an 5-20%
loss in faba bean production annually, but losses as
high as 50% have been reported under epiphytotic
conditions (Ibrahim et al., 23). Modified cultural
practices and fungicides provide partial crop
protection only, and therefore, effective disease
management should include resistance as a major
component. The use of low seeding rates (Ingram
and Hebblethwaite, 25) and the choice of the
planting date to avoid extended periods of wet
weather conditions (Hanounik and Hawtin, 10;
Wilson, 49), removal of infected and infested plant
debris from the field that may harbor hyphae or
sclerotia of B. fabae (Hanounik and Hawtin, 10;
Harrison, 14), rotating faba bean with non-host
crops such as cereals to reduce sclerotial population
and chances of primary infections (Harrison, 15),
use of clean, blemish-free seed and wide row
spacing can play an important role in reducing
disease severity. Fungicides may be useful only
when faba bean is grown early in the season to take
advantage of high prices. Hanounik and Hawtin
(10), Hanounik and Viha (13) and Hanounik and
Robertson (11) identified three faba bean lines viz;
BPL 1179, 710 and 1196 as durable sources of
resistance to B. fabae.
Sclerotinia stem rot
The fungal genus Sclerotinia cause
destructive disease of numerous pulses, vegetables
and flower crops. Sclerotinia stem rot occurs
worldwide and affect plants at all stages of growth,
including seedlings, mature plant and harvested
products. The pathogen have very wide host range
attacking more than 350 plant species belonging
more than 60 families. The damage caused in the
faba bean may vary depending upon the weather
condition, host susceptibility and nature of
infection. Seed must be free from sclerotia and seed
infection. Often sclerotia are carried with seed lot.
Removal of sclerotia from seed lot can be done by
flotation. Soil borne inoculum in the form of
sclerotia is most important source of initial
infection in the crop. Removal of sclerotia bearing
plant parts and their destruction by burning is
essential. Burning of the crop refuse in the field
after harvest destroys most sclerotia and those that
survive have less germinability. Burying the
sclerotia deep in soil by ploughing at least for 30
weeks ensures destruction of most of them. Deep
buried sclerotia fail to produce apothecia. Sharma
et al. (34) have reported control of stem rot by seed
treatment with mycelial preparation of
Trichoderma harzianum and field application of the
mycelial preparation at the rate of 200 g per sq
meter. Soil application and seed treatment with
Trichoderma harzianum and T. viride have given
encouraging result in managing white rot of pea.
Rust
It is one of the most widely distributed
diseases of faba bean around the world, but severe
in humid tropical and subtropical areas (Guyot, 7;
Hebblethwaite, 20). It has been reported from all
over West Asia and North Africa (Hawtin and
Stewart, 18). In general, rusty red pustules
surrounded by a light yellow halo, appears late in
the season and causes an estimated 20% loss in faba
bean production (Bekhit et al., 2; Mohamed, 26).
However, these losses could go up to 45% if severe
infections occur early in the season, can cause
almost total crop loss (Williams, 48). Cultural
practices such as appropriate crop rotation with
non-host crop, elimination and burning of crop
debris, suitable plant spacing, removal of weeds
and volunteer plants that help in reducing the
inoculum or avoiding the disease and future
infections. Field sanitation to destroy the crop
debris is very important for reducing losses from
faba bean rust. Removal of infected plant debris
(Prasad and Verma, 29), destruction of other host
species and rotating faba bean with non-host crops
(Conner and Bernier, 3) play an important role in
reducing chances of survival and primary infections

9. in the field. Use of clean, contaminant–free seed is
also recommended. Several rust-resistant faba bean
lines-BPL 1179, 261, 710, 8, 406, 417, and 484
have been reported. The faba bean lines L82009,
L82007, L82011 and L82010 have been rated as
resistant to both rust and chocolate spot (ICARDA,
24).
Ascochyta blight
Ascochyta blight (caused by fungus
Ascochyta fabae Speg.) is a major disease of faba
bean, also referred as leaf blight, widely distributed
throughout the world. Its severity varies
considerably from crop to crop and between
seasons. Yield losses of 10-30 per cent can occur in
seasons favourable for the disease. The disease can
cause significant crop losses and discolouration of
grains, which seriously reduces its market value.
Field sanitation to destroy crop debris is very
important for reducing losses from the disease.
Crop rotation, suitable spacing and proper
placement of seed help in avoiding the disease.
Pathogen is externally and internally seed-borne
and the only satisfactory preventive measure is to
use clean seed harvested from healthy crops. Faba
bean producers are advised not to use discoloured
seed, particularly seed with more than 25%
discolouration, as it may seriously reduce the grain
yield of their faba bean crops.
Pythium seed rot, root rot and damping off
These diseases affect seed, seedlings, and root
of faba bean. In this case, however, the greatest
damage is done to the seed and seedlings’ roots
during germination either before or after
emergence. Losses vary considerably with soil
moisture, temperature and other factors. In many
instance, poor germination of seeds or poor
emergence of seedlings is the result of damping off
infection in the pre-emergence stage. Older plants
are seldom killed when infected with damping off
pathogen, but they develop root and stem lesion and
root rots, their growth may be retarded considerably
and reduce yield considerably (Hagedorn and
Inglis, 8). The most effective measure against
Pythium rot, root rot and damping off are use of
chemical and/or biological seed protectants to keep
away the pre-emergence phase and to adopt
sanitary precautions in the nursery to check the
appearance of post-emergence damping off. Seed
treatment with fungicides provides good control of
pre-emergence damping off. The chemicals are
applied in dry or wet form to the seed and form a
protective layer around the seed coat keeping the
soilborne fungi away until the seedlings have
emerged. Certain cultural practices are also helpful
in reducing the amount of infection. Such practices
include providing good soil drainage and good air
circulation, planting when temperatures are
favourable for fast plant growth, thin sowing to
avoid overcrowding, light and frequent irrigation,
use of well decomposed manure, avoiding
application of excessive amounts of nitrate forms of
nitrogen fertilizers and practicing crop rotation.
Seedling blight
Rhizoctonia diseases occur throughout the
world. They cause serious diseases on many hosts
by affecting the roots, stems and other plant parts of
almost all vegetable, flowers and field crops.
Symptoms may vary fairly on the different crops,
with the stage of growth at which the plant becomes
infected and with the prevailing environmental
conditions. Control of Rhizoctonia diseases has
always been a challenge because of wide host range
and prolonged survival in soil and plant parts.
Considering the factors responsible for survival of
the pathogen and disease development, it must be
ensured that weed hosts are kept at the minimum
with in and around the faba bean field and proper
sanitation is maintained by removal of stubbles of a
badly affected crop. Wet, poorly drained areas
should be avoided or drained better. Disease-free
seeds should be planted on raised beds under
conditions that encourage fast growth of the
seedling. There should be wide spaces among
plants for good aeration of the soil surface and of
plants. When possible, as in greenhouses and seed
beds, the soil should be sterilized with steam or
treated with chemicals.
GAP : Non-monetary way to manage faba bean diseases—A Review 97

10. 98 Singh and Umrao
Alternaria leaf spot
The fungus Alternaria tenuissima, A.
alternata frequently associated with diseased bean
leaves having the characteristic leaf spot
symptoms. Initially lesions were brown, water
soaked, circular to irregular in shape, also appeared
on stems, pods and other plant parts. These dark
brown leaf spots often have a zoned pattern of
concentric brown rings with dark margins, which
give the spots a target-like appearance. Older leaves
are usually attacked first, but the disease progresses
upward and make affected leaves turn yellowish,
become senescent and either dry up and droop or
fall off. In a later stage of the disease, the leaves
become blighted from the margin to the center and
most of the diseased plants defoliated completely
(Rahman et al., 30). Alternaria spots can be
distinguished from ascochyta blight as the spots
have a brown margin containing obvious concentric
rings but do not produce black fruiting bodies
(pycnidia) on a grey centre. Alternaria spp.
overwinter as mycelium or spores in infected plant
debris and in or on seeds. They have dark-coloured
mycelium and short, erect conidiophores that bear
single or branched chains of conidia which are
dark, long or pear shaped and multicellular, with
both transverse and longitudinal cross walls.
Conidia are detached easily and are carried by air
currents. The germinating spores penetrate
susceptible tissue directly or through wounds and
soon produce new conidia that are further spread by
wind, splashing rain, etc. Alternaria diseases are
controlled primarily through the use of disease-free
or treated seed, and chemical sprays with
appropriate fungicides. Adequate nitrogen fertilizer
generally reduces the rate of infection by
Alternaria. Crop rotation, removal and burning of
plant debris, if infected, and eradication of weed
hosts help to reduce the inoculum for subsequent
plantings of susceptible crops.
Cercospora leaf spot
This is a minor bean disease, caused by fungus
Cercospora zonata. It mainly affects leaves, but
may also affect stems and pods of faba bean.
Symptoms of this disease can be easily confused
with those of Ascochyta leaf spot (Ascochyta
fabae) or chocolate spot (Botrytis fabae). This has
been causing some confusion in accurate diagnosis
by many growers and consultants in recent years.
Cercospora, like Ascochyta, develops early in the
season during wet and cold conditions but is less
damaging. The fungus is favoured by high
temperatures and therefore is most destructive in
the summer months and in warmer climates. Spores
need water to germinate and penetrate and heavy
dews seem to be sufficient for infection. The
pathogen overseasons in or on the seed and as
minute black stromata in old infected leaves.
Cercospora diseases are controlled by using disease
free seed, crop rotations with hosts not affected by
the same Cercospora species; and by spraying the
plants, both in the seedbed and in the field, with
appropriate fungicides. The severity of Cercospora
leaf spot appears to be strongly linked to close faba
bean rotation. Foliar spray of chlorothalonil or
carbendazim applied for the management of major
diseases, it can also take care of Cercospora
infection and help to retain on lower leaves in the
canopy. It is anticipated that resistant cultivars will
be released within five years.
Common blight
It is a serious bacterial disease of faba bean,
reported to cause 10 to 45 per cent yield losses. The
disease seems to be more prevalent in relatively
warm weather conditions. This disease reduced the
quality of the pods and thereby lowering the market
value due to rough and blemishes skin (Fahy and
Persley, 5). The seed must be obtained from a
reliable source to minimize the danger from
seedborne inoculum. Proper crop rotation is one
way of avoiding soil borne inoculum of the
bacterium. Hence, a 2-3year crop rotation had been
found to afford considerable protection to the crop.
Sanitation practices aiming at reducing the
inoculum in a field by removing and burning
infected plants or branches. Deep ploughing of soil

11. to eliminate infested bean debris in the field found
useful (Webster et al., 46).
Bacterial brown spot
It is the most economically significant
bacterial disease of faba bean, occurs in all the bean
growing areas of the world. In severe infections the
spots may be so numerous that they destroy most of
the plant surface and the plant appears blighted or
the spots may enlarge and coalesce, thus producing
large areas of dead plant tissue and blighted plants
(Hirano and Upper, 21). A combination of control
measures is required to combat a bacterial disease.
Infestation of fields or infection of crops with
bacterial pathogens should be avoided by using
only healthy seeds. Crop rotation should be
practiced to check the build-up of pathogen. The
use of chemicals to control bacterial diseases has
been generally much less successful than the
chemical control of fungal diseases. Of the
chemicals used as foliar sprays, copper compounds
give the best results. However, even they seldom
give satisfactory control of the disease when
environmental conditions favour development and
spread of the pathogen. Bordeaux mixture, fixed
coppers, and cupric hydroxide are used most
frequently for the control of bacterial diseases like
brown spot, leaf spots and blights.
Halo blight
This disease is a serious disease in bean
producing regions of the world. It is worldwide in
occurrence, repeatedly cause important economic
yield losses (Fourie, 6). Several measures must be
integrated for successful halo blight control. Uses
of disease-free seed, Seed treatment with
streptocycline, crop rotation, deep ploughing
reduces the incidence of disease (Taylor and
Dudley, 42). Adjusting fertilizing and watering so
that the plants are not extremely succulent during
the period of infection may also reduce the
incidence of disease. Harvesting should be done
before pod lesion turn brown.
Yellow mosaic
Yellow mosaic is a potential and widely
occurring virus disease of faba bean crop. It is
probably co-extensive with the host in India. The
disease is of significant economic importance in
areas where it commonly occurs. There is total
yield loss if the plants are affected at early stage of
growth. Control of the disease through prevention
of vector population build up has also been
recommended. Control of plant viruses through
control of vectors is often not very effective due to
the fact that common insecticides do not cause
instant death of all individuals in the vector
population and even a very few surviving
population is capable of spreading the disease
rapidly.
Stem nematode
The stem nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci
(Kuhn) Filipjev is a destructive seed and soil-borne
pathogen of faba bean in many parts of the
temperate region (Hanounik and Sikora, 12;
Hanounik, 9; Hashim, 16; Hooper and Brown, 22).
Infested seeds play an important role in the survival
and dissemination (Hooper and Brown, 22) of the
nematode. This is probably why D. dipsaci has a
very wide geographical distribution (Hebbleth-
waite, 20). Losses due to D. dipsaci can be reduced
by long (2–3 years at least) rotations with resistant
crops, use of healthy seeds, destruction of wild
hosts and removal of infected plant debris after
harvest. The use of nematode-free seeds is
extremely important. Infested seeds can be
disinfested by treating them with hot water for 1
hour at 46°C, with a nematicide in a gas-tight
container, or with 0.5% formaldehyde (Powell, 28).
CONCLUSION
Faba bean is considered as an important
source of dietary protein for human and animal
nutrition. It also contributes to farmer’s income and
improves the soil fertility through biological
nitrogen fixation. Crop diversification in
combination with other agronomic management
GAP : Non-monetary way to manage faba bean diseases—A Review 99

12. 100 Singh and Umrao
practices is capable of providing sustainable
disease management. Development and
dissemination of disease and pests management
strategies will help to achieve the goal of large scale
production of faba bean which is still an
underutilized crop in India.
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15. INFLUENCE OF POSITIONS OF BEARING AND METHODS OF
HARVESTING ON THE QUALITY OF FRUITS–A REVIEW
Priyamvada Pandey*, Rajesh Kumar, Ayushi Tamta and D.S.Mishra
Department of Horticulture,G.B.P.U.A. & Tech., Pantnagar
*Email: priyamvada75@gmail.com
ABSTRACT:India is blessed with varied climatic conditions and is thus the home of various
types of fruits. But most of the fruits are highly perishable and show a great decline in quality as
well as storage life soon after harvest. This decline is further aggravated if harvesting is not done
at the right time and by the correct method. Moreover position of bearing also plays a key role in
the quality of fruit. Fruit position on tree is found to influence the fruit size, maturity, skin colour,
flesh colour, mineral composition, TSS, acidity and fruit yield. Harvesting fruits with and without
pedicel in addition to affecting the storage life of fruits, also affects sugar content, acidity, fruit
firmness and colour retention. This review summarises effects of positions of bearing and
methods of harvesting on the overall quality of fruits.
Keywords: Position of bearing, harvesting method, fruit quality.
In fruits, physical and physiological changes
take place over a relatively shorter period of time
and exhibit a typical increase in respiration and
ethylene production during ripening. Ripening is
associated with a change of skin colour from green
to yellow. The colour of the flesh changes from
white to creamy white, yellowish pink or dark pink
or salmon red. Fruits have great morphological and
anatomical peculiarities. The position of fruit on
tree and the correct method of harvesting is a key
aspect for improving the quality of these highly
perishable commodities. The individual fruit if
timely harvested from appropriate position from the
tree canopy with better knowledge of their
harvesting method may reduce the physical loss of
weight (PLW) from the fruit and retained better
quality for longer time. The fruit bearing habit of
plants refer to position and type of wood on which
flower buds and subsequently fruits occur. It
indicates the position of flower bud with respect to
vegetative growth of plant after cessation of
juvenility. The flower bud may appear terminally
on the apex of shoot, laterally in the axils of leaves
or adventitiously from any point on stem. For fruit
bearing it is important to keep good light exposure
throughout the canopy otherwise shaded part fails
to form flower buds. Bearing trees should be
pruned regularly and lightly a little every year or at
least every alternate year. Old bearing trees usually
need more pruning than young vigorous trees that
have just come into bearing to increase the
favourable positions of fruit bearing on these trees.
In general, fruits from upper canopy of tree were
found to be of good quality but storage quality is
better of lower canopy fruits. The size and weight
of fruits harvested from lower and middle canopy
was higher than the fruits of upper position. Longer
shelf lives were observed in fruits with a small
stalk. The level of acidity was higher and total
sugars were lower in the fruits harvested with
pedicels.
Effect of fruit position on tree on maturity
and quality : Effect of fruit position on tree on fruit
maturity and quality was observed in apple
(Patterson et al., 22; Krishnaprakash et al., 19;
Baritt et al., 4; Zen, 37), Mineola fruit (Cohen 7),
and guava (Dhaliwal and Dhillon, 11). The ripening
pattern of ‘Delicious’ apples in relation to position
on the tree showed that the ethylene production of
‘Hi Early Red Delicious’ apples harvested from
primary, secondary and tertiary branches of 4
uniform trees of Malus domestica Borkh varied
considerably between and within branches
(Petterson et al., 22). Regression analysis revealed
a linear trend between primary branches from base
to apex of the tree. Fruits on terminal shoots mature
later. Fruits at the bottom of the tree mature earlier
HortFlora Research Spectrum, 2(2): 103-108 (April-June 2013) ISSN : 2250-2823
Received : 8.5.2013 Accepted : 22.5.2013

16. 104 Pandey et al.
than those at the middle and top (Krishnaprakash, et
al., 19). A variation in maturation rate between full
coloured and less coloured, interior and exterior
fruits and small and large ones on the same bunch
and on separate stalks was also observed. In apple,
the fruits on the lower shoot had the largest fruit
weight among the 9 positions (Zen, 37). Upper inner
fruits had the lowest weight and volume but more
intensity of red colour. Trees with bearing spurs
provided with different solar exposure level ranging
from 5% to 95% of full sunlight gives better quality
fruits (Baritt et al., 4). As the exposure level of
canopy is reduced fruits length, width, weight,
soluble solids, total solids were reduced while fruit
firmness and total acidity were increased. In Mineola
fruit, maturity and taste characteristics measured
were better in large, heavy fruit harvested from the
upper, external southern side of the tree than in small,
light fruit harvested from the lower, internal and
northern side of the tree (Cohen, 7). Harvest and
storage fruit increased its juice content, while fruit
remaining on tree showed an increase in TSS and a
decrease in acid levels, resulting in increase in TSS:
acid ratio and improved taste. In guava cv. Sardar the
fruit size and weight and seeds number per fruit
increased with increasing canopy volume. The
highest number of fruits was recorded with 107.6 m3
canopy volume. Fruit acidity increased whereas total
soluble solid: acid ratio decreased with increasing
tree volume (Dhaliwal and Dhillon, 11).
Effect of the influence of shade within tree
position on fruit quality: In apple, the fruits from
the outer positions were larger with a higher
proportion of skin coloured red and develop core
flush than fruits from the inner and lower portions of
the trees. Shade reduced the core flush as well as
reducing fruit size and colour (Jackson et al., 15). In
Cox’s Orange Pippin apple fruit, the tree bottom
canopy with high shading reduced the fruit size, fruit
colour and quality. They have less dry matter and
starch per unit fresh weight. But there was no
evidence that the concentrations of N, P, K, Ca and
Mg differed in fruits of same size produced from
upper or bottom canopy. But smaller fruits had higher
concentrations of Ca, N and P than the larger one of
upper canopy fruits (Jackson et al., 16). There
was no difference between vertical fruit
distribution in trees in Slender Spindle and trellis
system. But the largest tress (interstem hedgerow
and pyramid hedgerow) produced twice as much
fruits in top half of the canopy as in the bottom
half (David, 8). In all cases the fruits from upper
canopy of tree are of good quality but storage
quality is better of lower canopy fruit. The upper
part of the tree canopy intercepted maximum
radiation than the middle and lower canopy parts
in guava trees cv. Sardar. The size and weight of
fruits harvested from the middle and lower layer
position of the tree were found significantly
higher than the fruits of upper position (Singh and
Dhaliwal, 25).
Effect of tree age and canopy position on
fruit quality: In guava, fruits from upper canopy
have higher TSS (11.85%) and total sugars
(7.50%). Vitamin C content was higher from
fruits obtained from middle and lower canopies.
Minerals were higher in middle and lower
canopies fruit rather than the upper canopy (Asrey
et al., 2). There is increase in canopy volume, fruit
number, yield and quality and dry matter content
with increasing cross trunk section whereas fruit
size decreased with decrease in trunk cross
section in guava cv. Allahabad Safeda (Dinesh et
al., 12).
Effect of tree canopy position on fruit
yield quality and mineral composition: Kinnow
fruits harvested from the inner side of tree were
heavier and contained more juice and less rag,
whereas outer fruits had higher acid, TSS,
reducing sugar and total sugar content and
ripened earlier. The yield of inner fruits was 2-3
times greater than that of outer fruits in both
weight and number (Jawanda et al., 17).
Physico-chemical characteristics also varied with
fruit size; medium sized fruits (6-8cms) had the
best overall quality. Grape fruit from sunlight
positions mature earlier than fruit from shaded
positions. So the fruits were more in the most
exposed canopy position with higher soluble

17. solids, yields and juice quality with respect to other
different canopy position (Syvertsen and Albrigo,
32). Large sized ‘Anna’ apples as well as those
borne on the tree exterior had significantly lower
chlorophyll concentrations and higher anthocynin
levels than small or interior fruits. A negative
correlation was found between fruit size and both
fruit firmness and acidity, while a positive
relationship was observed between fruit size and
TSS percentages or physiological weight loss.
Fruits from the exterior part of the tree showed
significantly firmness and acidity values and higher
TSS and weight loss percentages than those from
the interior. During storage, large and exterior fruits
seemed to lose their firmness and acidity at a much
higher rate than either small or interior fruits
(Ahmed et al., 1). In ‘Tai So’ Lychee, the fruits
from upper position were of lower visual quality,
due to high light and dark brown blemishes on the
skin, rather than the colour of the red portion of the
skin but the yield was higher in upper canopy
position (Jones and Sreenivas, 18). Fruits from the
lower canopy has lower Brix/acid ratio. Peach fruits
of cv. Hamas collected from different parts of the
canopy were analysed for total soluble solids and
dry matter content were highest in the fruits picked
from the upper/apical part of the canopy and lowest
in those from lower/outer parts (Morgas and
Szymczak, 21). The highest yield per tree was
obtained from open centre trees (714 trees/hectare),
but the highest total yield per hectare was from
pillar shaped trees (2857 trees/hectare). In guava
cv. Pant Prabhat fruits from lower tree canopy
mature earlier than rest of the canopy (Tamta et al.,
34). There was also a variation in chemical as well
as mineral composition between different canopy
positions on tree. Calcium and potassium were
higher in upper canopy positions than lower canopy
fruits (Tamta and Kumar, 33).
Relationship between the quality and fruit
position on tree: In Satsuma mandarins, colouring
on fruit at the lowest site was slower than with the
other sites during the first week, but there was no
difference in colour by the fourth week of storage
(Suzuki and I to, 31). Fruit sweetness for the lowest
side was markedly less than for other sites in the
first week of storage, but in the second week it was
lowest at the lower site and highest at the middle
site. However, the contents were very similar by the
third week of storage. In sweet orange, a higher
percentage of the fruits of young trees were
produced at the periphery. Yields were higher on
the half of the canopy facing south-west and
south-east than on facing north-west and north-east.
Fruits inside the canopy were smaller and paler and
had a softer rind and higher juice content, but it had
lower sugar content and more acid. Fruit produced
high on the tree was larger and darker and had a
higher TSS content (Dettori et al., 9). Eight
commercially grown cultivars of guava were
harvested at the colour-break stage during the
winter season. The fruits were stored for up to 12
days under ambient conditions (18+2°C and
80-85% RH). The fruits were assessed for ripeness,
firmness, physiological weight loss, TSS, titrable
acidity, vitamin C and Ca contents. The cultivars
Chittidar and Sardar were noted for good shelf life
(9 days) compared with a maximum of 6 days in
Allahabad Safeda. The cultivars Sardar, Chittidar,
Karela and Apple colour were noted for high Ca
content relatively good pulp firmness for upto 9
days (Tandon and Chadha, 35). Postharvest
changes in mango cv. Nam Dok Mai fruits from
different parts of the tree were followed after
collection at 3 stages of maturity (14, 15 or 16
weeks after full bloom). Regardless of maturity
stage at harvest there were no statistically
significant differences in the quality of ripened
fruits between upper and lower parts of the tree
(Subhadrabandhu et al., 30). However, general
quality appeared slightly better in the fruits from
the upper part of the canopy; these fruits had a
deeper-yellow pulp, higher contents of TSS and
reducing sugars and had a higher TSS: titrable acids
ratio but lower moisture content, ascorbic acids,
flesh firmness, titrable acidity and total
non-structural carbohydrates than fruits from the
lower canopy of the tree. In cv. Midnight Valencia
of orange each tree was divided into 6 fruit zones,
comprising 3 vertical positions (upper, middle and
Influence of positions of bearing and methods of harvesting on quality of fruits 105

18. 106 Pandey et al.
lower) and 2 horizontal positions (inner and outer).
The fruit colour was best in the upper zone but there
was no significant difference between that of fruits
in the inner and outer zones or between the middle
and lower zones (De-Vries and Bester, 10). The
percentage brix was highest in the upper and outer
zones. Fruit sugar content was higher in both upper
zones and the middle outer zone.
Biochemical changes during storage of
fruits: The guavas were picked at 5 day intervals
from 20th
November to 25th
December. TSS, sugars,
ascorbic acids and starch contents were calculated
and were average but the specific gravity decreased
gradually and its optimum value was observed in
2nd
week of December (Tripathi and Gangwar, 36).
The ascorbic acid contents of the fruit increased
steadily to maximum. Among guava cvs. Gunees
gave the largest fruit (220.9g), White Flesh has
highest acidity (0.45%) and Lucknow-49 and Behat
Coconut had the highest content of soluble sugar
and ascorbic acid respectively (Tandon and
Chadha, 35). Guava fruits exhibit climacteric
patterns of respiratory behaviour and ethylene
evolution. The time to attain the climacteric
changes was generally not related to fruit maturity
at harvest, but rates of production of CO2 and
ethylene were higher at maturity level (Brown and
Wills, 5). In Kinnow mandarin irrespective of fruit
position on the tree its weight was positively
correlated with TSS content. Among different
maturity indices, TSS showed positive correlation
with reducing and non-reducing sugars. Peel (%)
was negatively correlated with juice (%) and fruit
shape index. Peel (%) and TSS showed a very high
positive correlation but with only in fruits on west
side of trees (Singh et al., 26). Guava cv.
Lucknow-49 fruit graded according to their specific
gravity (1<, 1-2 or >1), were packed in 200 gauge,
ventilated polythene bags and stored under ambient
condition upto 12 days. Weight loss, firmness,
titrable acidity, vitamin C, TSS and reducing sugar
content were assessed at 3 days interval. Fruits with
higher specific gravity can be stored for longer
period than with lower specific gravity fruits
(Balkrishnan et al., 3). In Clementine, fruit position
also affected juice pH, peel thickness and seed
number. In guava cv. Sardar physiological loss in
weight reaches a maximum at 12 days of storage
and the decay process started on day 4 reaching a
maximum of 58.58% on day 16. TSS, total sugar,
sucrose, pectin, acidity and ascorbic acid contents
in fruits increased gradually during maturation and
reached maximum on day 8 of storage and declined
thereafter. However, starch, protein, amino acids,
total phenols, chlorophyll a and b and mineral
composition of fruits started declining from
maturation onwards and were lowest on day 16 of
storage (Ramchandra, 24).
Storage quality: In guava fruits, the acidity
decreased at room temperature while at low
temperature, it increased gradually in the initial
stages and then decreased (Srivastava et al., 29).
The extent of acidity decline varied with cultivars
being maximum in Lucknow-49 and minimum in
Allahabad Safeda (Chundawat et al., 6). Acidity
increased upto 4 days of storage at room
temperature and then decreased (Gupta et al., 13).
Similar trends were also reported in grapes cultivar
Perlette (Kumar, 20). This increase in acidity was
probably due to water loss from the fruits during
storage (Hifney and Abdel, 14). Maximum titerable
acidity content (0.35%) was found with specific
gravity <1.0 in 3 days after storage (Balkrishnan et
al., 3).
Peduncle effect on fruit quality: In guava cv.
Allahabad Safeda fruits kept in natural posture i.e.
pedicel end vertically upward showed the lowest
physiological loss in weight, ethylene and CO2
evolution rates, the highest soluble solids and
ascorbic acid concentration and were the lowest to
ripen during storage (Siqqiqui and Gupta, 28). In
mango, the pedicellate fruits showed less infection
than non-pedicellate fruits upon ripening during the
storage period (Singh and Tandon, 27). Longer
shelf life was observed in mango fruits with a small
stalk. Pear fruits with pedicel retained very
attractive yellow colour, glossy appearance, no
shrinkage, and moderately loose texture with good
taste at the 10th
day of storage (Prakash et al., 23).

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fruit quality of apples. J. Applied Hort., 1 (1):
15-18.

21. STATUS OF DRY MATTER AT HARVESTING STAGE IN COMMER-
CIALLY GROWN GRAPE VARIETIES UNDER TROPICAL CLIMATIC
CONDITION
R.G. Somkuwar*, Roshni R. Samarth, J. Satisha, S.D. Ramteke and Prerna Itroutwar
National Research Centre for Grapes, P.O. Box No. 03, Manjri Farm Post, Pune 412307
* E-mail:rgsgrapes@gmail.com
ABSTRACT: The experiment was conducted at NRC for Grapes, Pune during year
2007-08.Four commercially cultivated grape varieties viz. Thompson Seedless, Tas-A-Ganesh,
Flame Seedless and Sharad Seedless were analyzed for dry matter content during harvesting
stage of the crop. Dry matter partitioning in different parts of vines were observed. Highly
significant differences were observed among varieties, various vine parts and their
combinations. Among the varieties, maximum dry matter content was recorded in Sharad
Seedless (42.87%) followed by Tas-A-Ganesh (42.29%) and among the various parts of the
vine, it was found maximum in cordon (54.84%) followed by trunk (54.39%). When dry matter
content was measured in particular variety in specific part of the vine, maximum dry matter was
recorded in the trunk of Sharad Seedless variety. Roots are the source of nutrient absorption by
the vine. Root health found to be positively correlated with the health of the plant and
productivity. In the present experiment, highest dry matter content of the roots was observed in
the Sharad Seedless with the mean value of 47.72%. Also the dry matter content of the
harvestable organ (bunches) was found maximum in Sharad Seedless (25.73%) as compared to
other variety.
Keywords: Dry matter, cordon, trunk, petiole, bunches, harvesting stage, grape.
Grape is grown under a variety of soil and
climatic conditions in India. Grape (Vitis vinifera
L.) is one of the major important fruit crops of the
country grown on an area of 111,000 ha with an
annual production of 1,235,000 tonnes (Anon., 1).
In India, 74.5 per cent of produced grape is
available for table purpose, nearly 22.5 per cent is
dried for raisin production, 1.5 per cent for wine
making and 0.5 per cent is used for juice making.
Farming for desired flavour, quality and economic
sustainability is an ultimate goal of viticulturists.
This should be achieved through best management
practices for a vineyard site. For as long as grapes
have been grown, it has been known that the best
grapes come from those vineyards where vegetative
growth and crop yield are in balance (Dry et al. 8).
Vine balance was defined by Gladstones (12) by
stating, “balance is achieved when vegetative
vigour and fruit load are in equilibrium and
consistent with high fruit quality.”
The dry matter partitioning is the end result of
the flow of assimilates from the source organ via a
transport path to the sink organ (Marcelis, 23). The
term dry matter partitioning may be defined as for
instance, the distribution of dry matter between the
organs of a plant or as a distribution between
different processes (Marcelis, 23).
Any environmental factors or cultural
practices that alter the demand-supply relationship
of crop load, water, nutrient and pest and diseases
will likely affect the vine reserve status (Cheng and
Xia, 4). Although, there is a considerable
information on the operations of individual
processes in plants such as photosynthesis, sugar
metabolism, translocation and cell expansion, the
control which actually regulate the partitioning of
dry matter at the crop level are still only poorly
understood (Wardlaw, 31). However, there has been
recently some progress in quantifying and
modeling dry matter partitioning in fruits
(Wermelinger et al., 32; Grossman and DeJong,
14). Besides genotypes, developmental stages of
plant in many growth conditions and internal
regulation by plants may also affect dry matter
partitioning (Marcelis, 23). Palmer (27) suggested
HortFlora Research Spectrum, 2(2): 109-115 (April-June 2013) ISSN : 2250-2823
Received : 9.4.2013 Accepted : 05.5.2013

22. 110 Somkuwar et al.
that for a regular perennial production pattern of
apple fruits, the fraction of assimilates partitioned
into the fruits should not exceeds 60-65%.
More productivity is generally comes from
healthy vines. This can be measured in terms of dry
matter production. In the present investigation, dry
matter status was measured from source to the sink
(harvestable organ-bunches) at harvesting stage.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The trial was conducted at the farm of National
Research Centre for Grapes, Pune during 2007-
2008. The grape rootstock Dog Ridge was planted
during March, 2001 and the grafting of table grape
varieties (Thompson Seedless, Tas-A-Ganesh, Flame
Seedless and Sharad Seedless) was done during
October, 2001. The vines were planted at the spacing
of 3.0 m between the rows and 1.83 m between the
vines, totalling the density of 1800 vines per hectare.
The vines were trained to flat roof gable system of
training with four cordons (H shape) developed
horizontally. The vines were trained on a horizontally
divided canopy trellis with vertical shoot positioning.
The height of cordon from the ground surface was
1.20 m and was separated by 0.60 m wide cross arms.
The distance from the fruiting wire to the top of
foliage support wire was 0.60 m.
The experimental site is situated in Mid-West
Maharashtra at an altitude of 559 m above sea level;
it lies on 18.32 °N latitude and 73.51 °E longitudes.
The climate in this region is mild to slightly dry.
Since the region falls under tropical condition,
double pruning and single cropping is followed.
Hence, the vines were pruned twice in a year (once
after the harvest of crop i.e., back pruning and second
for fruits i.e., forward pruning). The trial was laid out
in factorial Randomized Block Design. The land in
the experimental plot was uniform and levelled.
During the season, all the recommended cultural
operations like fertilizers, irrigation and plant
protection, etc. were given to the vine. The vines
were irrigated with drip irrigation system having 2
drippers/vine of 8-litre capacity. A light trench of 0.6
m × 1.2 m trench was opened at a depth of 10 cm
twice in a year to apply well rotten farmyard
manure and single super phosphate and the trench
were closed back. At the time of harvest, the vines
under each variety were uprooted and the samples
were brought to the laboratory. The observations
on fresh weight of different parts of vine (roots,
trunk, cordons, shoot, petiole and bunches) were
recorded. The samples were then kept in the oven
for about 3 days at 50°C to record the
observations on dry weight. The data on fresh
weight and dry weight of individual vine parts
were recorded and the dry matter was calculated.
The varieties used under the study were 1.
Thompson Seedless, 2. Tas-A-Ganesh, 3. Flame
Seedless, and 4. Sharad Seedless. These varieties
were studied for dry matter content in various
parts of the vines, such as : Root, Trunk, Cordon,
Shoot, Petiole, and Bunches. There were total 24
treatment combinations for dry matter estimation
(Table 1).
Table 1 : Treatment combination for present
study.
Treatment Treatment combination
Variety Vine part
1 Thompson Seedless Root
2 Thompson Seedless Trunk
3 Thompson Seedless Cordon
4 Thompson Seedless Shoot
5 Thompson Seedless Petiole
6 Thompson Seedless Bunches
7 Tas-A-Ganesh Root
8 Tas-A-Ganesh Trunk
9 Tas-A-Ganesh Cordon
10 Tas-A-Ganesh Shoot
11 Tas-A-Ganesh Petiole
12 Tas-A-Ganesh Bunches
13 Flame Seedless Root
14 Flame Seedless Trunk
15 Flame Seedless Cordon
16 Flame Seedless Shoot
17 Flame Seedless Petiole
18 Flame Seedless Bunches
19 Sharad Seedless Root
20 Sharad Seedless Trunk

23. 21 Sharad Seedless Cordon
22 Sharad Seedless Shoot
23 Sharad Seedless Petiole
24 Sharad Seedless Bunches
The shoot samples were collected leaving one
node at the base and the initial weight was
measured. The samples were then allowed to dry
for 72 hours in hot air oven at 75°C or until no
change in dry weight and again weight was
measured after drying and the dry matter was
calculated. The data was analyzed statistically
using SAS version 9.3, where all the data tested for
treatments effects on individual parameters was
arranged by the general linear model (GLM) and
analysis of variance (ANOVA) techniques as a
combined analysis was presented.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The observations recorded on dry matter
content in various parts of different grape varieties
(Thompson Seedless, Tas-A-Ganesh, Flame
Seedless and Sharad Seedless) presented in Table 2
and 3 revealed that significant differences were
recorded for dry matter content in the varieties.
Considering the total amount of dry matter content
in the vine, the variety Flame Seedless had highest
per cent dry matter content followed by Sharad
Seedless, Tas-A-Ganesh and Thompson Seedless.
The dry matter content in different parts of vine
also varied significantly. The dry matter content in
roots was maximum in Tas-A-Ganesh grapes
(54.17%) followed by Sharad Seedless (47.72%)
whereas the least amount of dry matter was
recorded in Thompson Seedless grapes (45.17%).
The variation in availability of dry matter in
different grapevine parts suggests the response of
different grape varieties differently for
physiological developments. The root system plays
an important role in grape production. In peninsular
condition, grapevine is pruned twice in a year for
two different purposes. Cultural practices like
opening of light trench to apply farm yard manure
and the fertilizers are followed before each pruning.
The new root growth starts alongwith the shoot
growth after pruning of a vine. F value estimated
for varieties, different parts of the vine and their
interaction were 40.61, 1974.89 and 12.33,
respectively. Also significant differences were
recorded for varieties, different vine parts and their
interactions (Table 4). Miller and Howell (26) also
reported that high capacity vines produced the
greatest quantity of fruits, leaves, shoots and total
canopy dry mass. The fruits are produced by
partitioning of carbohydrates to berries at the
expense of vegetative tissues and an increase dry
matter production/unit leaf area as the sink strength
increases (Layne and Flore, 22 Miller and Howell,
25).
Although there is considerable information on
the operation of individual processes in plants such
as photosynthesis, sugar metabolism, translocation,
and cell expansion, the controls which actually
regulate the partitioning of DM at the crop level are
still only poorly understood (Wardlaw, 31).
However, there has recently been quite some
progress in quantifying and modeling dry matter
partitioning in fruits (Wermelinger et al., 32;
Grossman and DeJong, 14) and vegetables (Dayan
et al., 6 Marcelis, 24; De Koning, 7; Heuvelink,
15). There seems to be a great diversity in the way a
crop partitions its assimilates. Consequently, the
simulation models available at the moment are
rather species specific. The most suitable
simulation approach depends on the type of crop
studied and the aim of the model.
The trunk is considered as one of the major
plant part for food reserve that can supply food
material to the sink, a developing bunch. Canopy
management plays an important role in storing the
food material in grapevine. The dry matter content
varied significantly in the trunk part of all the four
varieties studied (Table 3 and Fig. 1). The highest
dry matter content in the trunk was recorded in
Sharad Seedless (53.92%), however, the lowest
quantity of dry matter was recorded in
Tas-A-Ganesh grapes (52.58%). Clingeleffer and
Krake (5) suggested that the amount of biomass
partitioned to the stem declines as the number of
shoots per vine increases. Orientation of shoots also
Status of dry matter at harvesting stage in commercially grown grape varieties 111

24. 112 Somkuwar et al.
decides the availability of biomass (Kliewer et. al.,
18).
Primary and secondary cordons combine
together supply food material to the developing
shoots that ultimately offer the fruit bud
differentiation. Basically, a cordon becomes the
primary source of food material to the canes.
Higher amount of dry matter was recorded in the
cordons of Tas-A-Ganesh vines (55.68%) as
compared to the lowest in cordons of Flame
Seedless (53.64%). In crop growth models, the dry
matter partitioning among plant organs is often
described as only a function of the developmental
stage of the crop (Penning de Vries and van Laar,
29).
The dry matter partitioning between root and
shoot has been described as a functional
equilibrium between root activity (water or nutrient
uptake) and shoot activity (photosynthesis); i.e. the
ratio of root-to-shoot weight is proportional to the
ratio of shoot-to-root specific activity (Brouwer, 2).
Although in this way the ratio between shoot and
root dry weight can often be estimated fairly well in
vegetative plants, the mechanism underlying this
equilibrium is quite complicated and not well
understood (Brouwer, 3; Lambers, 19; Farrar, 11).
Furthermore, this equilibrium can only be applied
to shoot:root ratios and not easily to ratios between
other plant organs, because of the absence of
functional interdependence. Dry matter partitioning
is the end result of a co-ordinated set of transport
and metabolic processes governing the flow of
assimilates from source organs via a transport path
to the sink organs. The activities of these processes
are not static, but may change both diurnally and
during plant development (Patrick, 28). Assimilates
are produced by photosynthesis in the source
organs (mainly leaves). The assimilates can be
stored or transported from the source to the
different sink organs via vascular connections
(phloem). The translocation rate of assimilates in
the phloem is often considered to be driven by
gradients in solute concentration or in water or
turgor potential between the source and the sink
ends of the phloem (Ho, 16; Wolswinkel, 33; Lang
Table 2: Dry matter content in different parts of grape varieties.
Vine parts Varieties
Thompson Seedless Tas-A-Ganesh Flame Seedless Sharad Seedless
Roots 45.17e
(5.00)* 54.17ab
(4.00) 46.27de
(5.00) 47.72de
(5.51)
Trunk 53.90ab
(5.00) 52.58bc
(5.00) 53.92ab
(3.00) 57.15a
(5.00)
Cordon 54.66ab
(4.00) 55.68ab
(5.00) 53.64ab
(3.00) 55.38ab
(4.00)
Shoot 40.17f
(3.00) 45.88e
(4.51) 39.30f
(4.00) 49.69cd
(5.00)
Petiole 20.25j
(3.00) 20.48ij
(2.00) 19.35j
(2.00) 21.54ijh
(1.00)
Bunches 24.42gh
(4.00) 24.98gh
(4.00) 23.97igh
(3.00) 25.73g
(4.00)
* The values in brackets are standard deviations.
Table 3: Mean dry matter content comparison in
different varieties and parts.
Mean dry matter
content among varieties
Mean dry matter
content among different
parts
39.76b
48.33b
42.29a
54.39a
39.41b
54.84a
42.87a
43.76c
20.41e
24.78d
LSD 0.78 0.96
Table 4: ANOVA for four grape varieties, parts
of vine and their combinations.
Mean
Square
F Value Pr > F
Variety 55.25 40.61 <.0001
Parts 2686.86 1974.89 <.0001
Variety*parts 16.77 12.33 <.0001

25. and Thorpe, 21; Patrick, 28; Lang and During, 20).
Utilization and compartmentation of the assimilates
in the sink are important to maintain these
gradients. The control of dry matter partitioning
may be at the source, at the sink and/or at the
transport path. However, several authors have
found indications that dry matter partitioning
among sink organs is primarily regulated by the
sinks themselves (Gifford and Evans, 13; Farrar,
10; Ho, 17; Verkleij and Challa, 30).
The considerable amount of dry matter varied
significantly in the shoots of different varieties.
Higher dry matter was recorded in the canes of
Sharad Seedless (49.69%) as compared to the
lowest in the canes of Flame Seedless variety
(39.30%). This indicates the availability of dry
matter for developing bunch varies with the
variety.
Petiole is considered as an indicator for
nutrient requirement of a vine. In grape vineyard,
generally after 45th
day during both pruning, the
petiole of 5th
leaf is harvested to study the nutrient
status of a vine. The dry matter content in the
petiole indicates the vine storage. Significant
differences were recorded for dry matter content in
the petiole. The petiole of Sharad Seedless had
higher dry matter (21.54%) than the lowest in
Flame Seedless (19.35%). Higher dry matter also
recorded in bunches of Sharad Seedless grapevine
(25.75%) and was followed by Tas-A-Ganesh
(24.98%), however, the lowest dry matter content
was recorded in Flame Seedless (23.97%).Edson
and Howell (9) considered the interaction of the
yield components: total yield, clusters per vine and
berries per vine and how these reproductive
components might influence the source: sink
relationship.
Status of dry matter at harvesting stage in commercially grown grape varieties 113
Figure 1 : Dry matter distribution among various combinations of grape varieties and parts of the vine.

26. 114 Somkuwar et al.
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Status of dry matter at harvesting stage in commercially grown grape varieties 115

28. PERFORMANCE OF PLANTING MATERIAL ON GROWTH AND YIELD
OF TURMERIC UNDER GUAVA ORCHARD
D.K. Singh*, S. Aswal, G. Aswani and M. K. Shivhare
Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Anta, Baran, Rajasthan-325202
Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture & Technology, Udaipur
*E-mail :dksingh.KVK@gmail.com
Abstract: The present investigation was conducted to find out the effect of different planting
materials i.e. mother rhizome, primary finger, secondary finger and tertiary fingers on plant
growth, yield and yield contributing characters along with economics of turmeric cv. Erode
Selection-1. All the intercropping systems showed significant enhancement in the height of the
tree varying from 1.25 to 3.40 over the sole tree. Among the different intercrops, better growth of
the guava tree was observed where mother rhizome turmeric was grown as intercrop followed by
primary, secondary and tertiary fingers treatments. Plant height and number of tillers per plant
were enhanced in mother rhizome of turmeric (96.68 cm and 4.03, respectively) under shade of
guava plant which results maximum survival percentage (98.45%) and its growth and
performance was better than other planting materials. The highest number of fingers per plant
(13.64), finger length (9.06), finger weight (36.14) and yield (389.47g/plant and 235.41q/ha) were
recorded when turmeric were grown under juvenile guava tree which was significantly higher
than all other planting materials. All the turmeric planting materials grown under shade of juvenile
guava orchards were found most desirable in terms of vegetative growth, yield, gross return, net
return and benefit cost ratio than sole crop.
Keywords: Turmeric, finger, intercrop, guava orchard, economics.
Turmeric (Curcurma longa L.) is one of the
important spice crops which can be grown
successfully under shade of orchards (Singh, 9). It
is used as a spice, food preservative, pickles,
colouring agent, and in cosmetic and medicine.
Turmeric possesses a thick underground stem
rhizome with short blunt fingers (Fig.1). The
primary round shape tuber at the base of the aerial
stem is known as mother rhizome, which bears
primary fingers, secondary finger and further gives
rise to tertiary fingers, thus as a whole dense clump
is formed (Rao et al., 8). Guava is a popular fruit
tree established in Haroti region of Rajasthan. In
established orchards monoculture is practiced by
the farmers due to shading effect on intercrop.
Some shade loving plants like turmeric (Curcurma
longa L.), ginger (Zingiber officinalis) and
colocassia (Colocasia esculenta) etc. can be grown
in successfully as an intercrop in orchards (Haque,
et. al., 5). Turmeric, being a sterile triploid, is
vegetative propagated by mother rhizome, primary
fingers, secondary finger and tertiary fingers. The
variable size of planting material significantly
influenced the seedling vigour, early growth, yield
and seed requirement of turmeric (Singh et. al., 10);
Dhatt et al., 4; Meenakshi et al., 6). Therefore,
present investigation was planned to standardize
the planting material for use as seed of turmeric
variety under the shade of guava orchards.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The experiment was conducted at Krishi
Vigyan Kendra, Anta, in a randomized block design
with three replications for two consecutive years,
i.e. 2009 and 2010. Four types of planting materials
i.e. mother rhizome, primary finger, secondary
finger and tertiary fingers of turmeric cv. Erode
Selection-1were planted separately in open
condition as well as under the periphery of 8 years
guava variety L-49 on ridges spaced 45 cm apart
with plant to plant distance of 20 cm in last week of
June. The different planting materials i.e. mother
rhizome, primary finger, secondary finger and
tertiary fingers of turmeric having a size of
4.5-5.0cm, 6-7cm, 4.5-5.0 and below 3.0 cm,
HortFlora Research Spectrum, 2(2): 116-120 (April-June 2013) ISSN : 2250-2823
Received : 23.4.2013 Accepted : 20.5.2013

29. Performance of planting material on growth and yield of turmeric under guava orchard 117
respectively are depicted in Figure1. Recommended
cultural operations and plant protection measures
were followed to raise a healthy crop. The
observations were recorded for plant height (cm),
number of tillers/plant, number of leaves per plant,,
leaf length (cm), leaf width (cm), yield per plant(g),
yield per hectare (q), length, girth and weight of
mother rhizome, primary, secondary and tertiary
fingers. Ten plants selected randomly and
morphological and yield contributing characters
were recorded for statistical analysis. Economics was
done for each treatment on hectare basis taking into
account the market value of each crop to find out the
maximum rate of return to investment. For this
purpose, cost of ploughing, seed, fertilization,
irrigation, human labour were considered in
calculation.The data was analyzed as per statistical
procedure given by Panse and Sukhatme (7).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Growth attributes like plant height, plant
periphery and trunk thickness of guava trees
increased significantly with tree age and their
percentage increase over the year 2008 was 7.76,
5.18 and 3.23%, respectively (Table 1). Irrespective
of the year, all the intercropping systems showed
significant enhancement in the height of the tree
varying from 1.25 to 3.40 over the sole tree. Among
the different intercrops, better growth of the guava
tree was observed where mother rhizome turmeric
was grown as intercrop followed by primary,
secondary and tertiary fingers treatments. Similar
trend was also recorded with respect to plant
periphery and trunk thickness. On the other hand, the
increase in plant periphery due to intercropping did
not show any significant difference. Better growth of
guava plants in association with intercrops may be
attributed to the improved aeration from frequent soil
working and to the better response of inputs applied
to the intercrops than in sole plantation, where the
inter spaces were left uncultivated and did not
receive any additional inputs like, manures,
fertilizers and irrigation etc. Maximum tree growth in
association with mother rhizome treatment was due
to coverage of orchards soil to better growth of
turmeric plant than other treatments. As black
cotton soils are having hard pan below soil
surface, low in nitrogen, even a minimal
application of inputs and cultural operations helps
in better growth and development of plants.
Positive influence of intercrops on growth and
vigour of trees has been also reported in guava
and mango (Mangifera indica L.) in past studies
in other places (Awasti et al., 1 and Awasti and
Saroj, 2).
The results of the experiment were indicated
that vegetative and vegetative contributing
characters of different planting materials
significantly influence the growth of plants (Table
2). The plant height, number of tillers per plant
and number of leaves per plants, number of roots,
length of roots and survival percentage were
significantly influenced by different type of
planting material of turmeric but leaf size were
not found significant (Fig.2). Intercropping of
different type of turmeric under shade of guava
orchards performed better than sole crop. Plant
height and number of tillers per plant of different
type of planting material were enhanced in
intercrop and highest plant height and number of
tillers per plant was recorded in mother rhizome
of turmeric (96.68) and (4.03) under shade of
guava plant. Plant height of ginger was gradually
increased in intercrop of guava than sole cropping
might be due partial shading. Similar increase of
plant height of ginger in intercropping of mango
was reported by Chaudhary et al., (3). Number of
leaves per plant was highest in mother rhizome of
turmeric in intercrop (16.16) as well as in sole
crop (14.34) in comparison of primary finger,
secondary finger and tertiary fingers respectively
of turmeric cv. Erode Selection-1. The highest
number of roots (13.11) and length of root
(10.45cm) was obtained in mother turmeric
grown in guava intercrop. Leaf size was largest in
turmeric in both condition i.e. in sole and
intercrop of mother rhizome. The leaves of
tertiary fingers were smallest (29.24cm ´ 7.14cm)
and its overall growth was found poor in sole as
well as in intercropping system. Haque et al. (5)

30. 118 Singh et al.
also reported that the vegetative growths of ginger,
turmeric and mukhi kachu were performing well
under the juvenile orchards of mango. The survival
percentage of plants generated from mother
rhizomes were maximum (98.45%) in
intercropping of guava than sole crop (98.45%) and
its growth and performance was better than other
planting materials. Better growth of mother
rhizome of turmeric was due to the presence of
maximum food materials stored at initial stage.
The yield and yield contributing performance
of different planting materials of turmeric under
shade of guava as well as sole crop was presented in
Table 3 clearly indicated that the yield of all the
planting materials were performing better in shade
of guava tree. The yield of turmeric in open
conditions was reduced in comparison of intercrop
due to the less number of fingers per plant, weight
of finger, finger size and poor growth and
development. Turmeric leaves becomes white in
open condition and is very sensitive to sun light.
Similar to turmeric the ginger plants produced
moderate plant height and higher yield under partial
shade than open sunshine (Singh, 9). The highest
number of fingers per plant (13.64), finger length
(9.06), finger weight (36.14) and yield
(389.47g/plant and 235.41q/ha) were recorded
when turmeric were grown under juvenile guava
tree which was significantly higher than all other
planting materials.
The economic performance of different
planting material of turmeric in sole and under
shade of guava orchards has been presented in
Table 3. Cultivation of turmeric in juvenile guava
orchards was more beneficial than other crops.
Yield of turmeric was reduced in second year in the
guava orchard in all the planting material treatment
due to the emergence of maximum shoots and
branches of guava orchards. The highest cost
benefit ratio (5.97) was obtained from mother
turmeric rhizome crop grown under guava plant
followed by primary finger (4.86), secondary finger
(4.77) and tertiary finger (4.56), respectively. Total
variable cost of all the planting material was similar
to each other due the application of same
intercultural operations. The wholesale prices of
turmeric and guava fruit were Rs. 15/kg and Rs.
7/kg, respectively in local market.
The present study concluded that planting
materials exhibited significant differences on plant
growth, rhizome size, yield and net return of
turmeric. Mother rhizome and primary fingers are
significantly better planting material than
secondary and tertiary fingers in terms of plant
growth, yield and rhizome size. Therefore, mother
rhizome or primary fingers can be used as planting
material for raising turmeric crop. Since, primary
fingers possesses better storage, more tolerance to
wet soil and lower seed requirement (Rao et al., 8)
therefore, use of primary fingers as seed material
will be immense benefit to the growers without

31. Performance of planting material on growth and yield of turmeric under guava orchard 119
Table 1: Response of different turmeric planting materials on vegetative growth of guava cv. L-49.
Treatment Plant height
(m)
Mean
Plant Periphery
(m)
Mean
Trunk thickness
(cm)
Mean
2009 2010 2009 2010 2009 2010
Guava (sole) 7.34 7.59 7.46 13.81 13.97 13.89 45.43 45.69 45.56
Guava + Mother rhizome 7.99 8.09 8.04 14.52 14.71 14.61 46.78 46.91 46.84
Guava + Primary finger 7.92 7.98 7.95 14.17 14.23 14.20 46.72 46.82 46.77
Guava + Secondary finger 7.84 7.91 7.87 13.94 13.99 13.96 46.61 46.73 46.67
Guava + Tertiary finger 7.76 7.81 7.78 13.87 13.91 13.89 46.59 46.58 46.58
Mean 7.77 7.876 7.82 14.06 14.16 14.11 46.43 46.55 46.49
CD (P = 0.05) 0.63 0.74 0.59 NS 0.94 0.93 1.01 1.06 1.03
Table 2: Effect of planting materials on growth characteristics of turmeric planted in sole and under shade
of guava plant (pooled over year).
Planting
material
(Rhizome)
Plant
height
(cm)
No.of
tiller/
plant
No. of
leaves/
plant
Leaves size (cm) Root parameter Survival
(%)length width No of root/
plant
Length
Mother (sole) 91.54 3.72 14.34 42.42 10.43 11.43 9.31 98.45
Primary (sole) 87.18 3.01 14.31 41.78 10.43 9.87 8.93 94.78
Secondary (sole) 68.12 2.14 13.11 37.33 9.23 7.98 4.21 94.11
Tertiary (sole) 42.73 2.01 8.70 29.24 7.14 4.21 2.4 89.12
Mother + JGT 96.68 4.03 16.16 51.36 12.11 13.11 10.45 98.45
Primary + JGT 92.78 3.68 16.63 51.35 12.10 10.24 9.45 95.47
Secondary + JGT 72.62 2.72 14.32 44.57 9.96 7.89 5.81 95.56
Tertiary +JGT 45.84 2.17 9.74 31.43 8.18 5.76 2.68 91.10
CD (P = 0.05) 7.84 2.14 7.01 NS NS 8.25 7.98 6.74
Table 3: Effect of planting materials on yield and yield attributes of turmeric planted in sole and under
shade of guava plant (pooled over year).
Planting material
(Rhizome)
No.of
fingers/plant
Length of
finger (cm)
Weight of
fingers (g)
Yield/plant (g) Yield/ha (q)
Mother (sole) 12.45 8.96 34.56 384.12 234.13
Primary (sole) 10.13 8.41 32.15 319.13 232.17
Secondary (sole) 8.14 7.83 28.34 289.73 228.78
Tertiary (sole) 4.79 4.21 21.04 192.24 221.22
Mother + JGT 13.64 9.06 36.14 389.47 235.41
Primary + JGT 11.25 8.82 33.24 326.35 232.89
Secondary + JGT 9.16 8.13 29.13 296.93 229.16
Tertiary +JGT 5.14 4.57 22.41 197.14 221.94
CD (P = 0.05) 6.25 5.62 7.34 9.47 3.96