2. Observations
 Observation = paying attention to the world around you
 E.g., Newton conceived the concept of universal gravitation
when he observed an apple falling and at the same time
noticed the moon in the sky
Personal Experience
 ◦Relying on one’s knowledge of prior experiences
◦Limitations
 How one is affected by an event depends on who one is
 One frequently needs to know something that cannot be
learned through experience

3. Tradition
 Doing things as they have always been done
 Limitations
 Traditions are often based on an idealized
past
 Can be distant from current realities and the
complexities associated with them
Experts or Authorities
 Relying on the expertise or authority of others
 Limitations
Experts can be wrong
Experts can disagree among themselves, as
in a “second opinion”

4. Creativity
 ◦Using your imagination to find new ways to answer
questions
 ◦Einstein –started his work on relativity by imagining
things would like if he travelled on a beam of light.
When asked what single event was most helpful in
developing the Theory of Relativity, Eisnteinreplied:
“Figuring out how to think about the problem.”
 ◦Skinner –built many novel appratusesto answer
questions about behavior–“Skinner Box”
 Much can be gained from group creativity or
brainstorming:
 “Borrowing from one source is called plagiarism, but
borrowing from more than one source is called
research”

5. Logic
A. Inductive reasoning
 ◦Reasoning from specific to general
 ◦Limitations
  order to be certain of a conclusion, one must observe all
In
examples
  examples can be observed only in very limited
All
situations where there are few members of the group
B. Deductive reasoning
 ◦Reasoning from the general to the specific
 ◦Limitations
 You must begin with true premises in order to
 arrive at true conclusions
 Deductive reasoning only organizes what is already
known

6.  The Scientific Method

The goal of the scientific method is to
explain,
 predict, and/or control phenomena
Involves the acquisition of knowledge and
the
 development and testing of theories
The use of the scientific method is more
efficient
 and reliable than any other source
knowledge

7. Five steps that characterize the scientific
method
 The Scientific Method
 Limitations
 ◦Inability to answer value-based questions
involving “should”
 ◦Inability to capture the full richness and
complexities of the participants
 ◦Limitations of measurement instruments
 ◦Ethical and legal responsibilities

8.  Application of the scientific
method to study educational
problems.
 Goal is to explain, predict, and/or
control educational phenomena

9.  Derived from the Latin word meaning „to
know‟.
 Systematic and a replicable process, which
identifies and defines problems within
specified boundaries.
 Employs well designed method to collect
data and analyze the results
 Disseminates the findings to contribute to
generalizable knowledge.

10.  Organized inquiry does not directly solve
the problems but it provides information
that in turn helps solve the problems.
Information can widen the number of
options that can be used in dealing with
specific problems.
 Research is the orderly investigation of a
subject matter for the purpose of adding to
knowledge.

11.  Research can mean ‘re-search’ implying that the
subject matter is already known but, for one
reason or another, needs to be studied again.
 can be used without a hyphen and in this case it
typically means investigating a new problem or
phenomenon.
 RESEARCH is any organized inquiry carried out to
provide information for solving problems.
 Research is always problem-based. For a specific
question, any corresponding organized inquiry
should provide an answer.
 The inquiry is done in an organized manner in the
sense that the scientific process is done.