SlideShare a Scribd company logo
1 of 9
Download to read offline
Journal of Environment and Earth Science                                                      www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.2, 2012


 Factors Associated with Pesticide Risk Behaviors among Rice
                   Farmers in Rural Community, Thailand
           Buppha Raksanam1,2* Surasak Taneepanichskul2 Wattasit Siriwong2 Mark G. Robson3,4
    1.   Sirindhorn College of Public Health, Trang, P.T.J. Trang, 92000, Thailand
    2.   College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
    3.   School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, NJ, 08901 8525, USA
    4. School of Public Health, University of Medicine and Dentistry of NJ, 08901 8525, USA
    * E-mail of the corresponding author: sorayanarak@hotmail.com


Abstract
The need to use large amounts of pesticides has raised environmental health and human health concerns.
Several reports reveal that many farmers in Thailand continue to be poisoned through unsafe practices in
the use of pesticides. Few studies exist that examine pesticide risk behaviors and beliefs among rice farmers
in Thailand. The study objective was to evaluate health beliefs and behaviors associated with pesticide risk
behaviors among rice farmers in the Khlong Seven community from March to December 2010. Data
collection from 482 rice farmers was completed by observation, in-depth interviews, and focus group
discussions. We found the main potential exposure pathways included: take-home exposure; ingestion from
food intake, especially vegetables and drinking water; environment risks, especially the proximity of family
homes to farms, spray drift areas, and; the most concern stemmed from their practice. Major factors of
pesticide poisoning in the Khlong Seven community were the unsafe use of pesticides including erroneous
beliefs of farmers about pesticide toxicity, lack of attention to safety precautions, environmental hazards,
and information about first aid and antidotes written on the container labels, the use of faulty spraying
equipment or lack of proper maintenance of spraying equipment, and wearing protective gear and
appropriate clothing during the handling of pesticides. This study concludes that an intervention program is
necessary to improve safer pesticide behaviors and to decrease pesticide exposure among rice farmers in
Khlong Seven community.
Keywords: rice farmers, pesticide exposure, risk behaviors, rural community


1. Introduction
Pesticides are widely used throughout the world to protect or promote industrial agricultural products
(WHO 1990; Ecobichon 2001). Pesticide exposure is one of the most important occupational risks among
farmers in Thailand (Ecobichon 2001). Short term exposure can cause irritation of the skin, eyes, nose,
impaired of lung functions, vision, memory, liver, kidneys and stomach discomfort. Both short and long
term exposure can affect the nervous system (Alavanja et al. 2004; Blondell et al. 2007; Calvert 2008;
Keifer et al. 2007; MOPH 2009; Klein-Schwartz et al. 1997; Weisenburger et al. 1992; Winchester et al.
1993; Robson et al. 2001). The need to use large amounts of pesticides has raised human health and
environmental concerns (Hemmi & Cool 1995). The total amount of imported pesticides had dramatically
increased in Thailand. The trend of reported cases of pesticide poisonings from 2005 to 2008 had
dramatically increased. The amount of cases harmed from the pesticide poisoning in 2008 was 1,705 cases
(MOPH 2009).
Khlong Seven community, Khlong Luang district, Pathumthani province is located at the middle part of
Thailand, where is located in the low alluvial flats of the Chao Phraya river. Siriwong et al. (2008) found
ecological risk and contamination of human food sources from Organochlorines in this area. Few studies
exist that examine environmental risk behaviors related to pesticide use among rice farmers. We applied the
principles of the Health Belief Model and environmental health behavioral assessment methodology to

                                                     32
Journal of Environment and Earth Science                                                       www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.2, 2012
evaluate health beliefs and behaviors associated with pesticide exposure among rice farmers in Khlong
Seven community. This enabled us to learn about the contexts of susceptibility, and perceived risks related
to pesticide use among rice farmers. The principle of the Health Belief Model is based on six key concepts
(Becker et al. 1978; Glanz et al. 2002). (1) The perceived susceptibility is an individual's assessment of
their risk from occupational pesticide hazards. (2) The perceived severity is an individual's assessment of
the seriousness of the occupational or pesticide hazards, and its potential consequences. (3) The perceived
barrier of pesticide safety is an individual's assessment of the influences that facilitate or discourage
adoption of the promoted occupational pesticide safety behaviors. (4) The perceived benefit is an
individual's assessment of the positive consequences of adopting occupational pesticide safety behaviors.
(5) The cues to action are events, either physical symptoms of a health condition or environmental incidents
from pesticide use that stimulate farmers to take action/adopt protective measures. (6) Self-efficacy is the
farmer’s belief in being able to effectively and successfully carry out the protective measures necessary to
achieve the desired results (Becker et al. 1978; Glanz et al. 2002). The present study, we focused on
perceived susceptibility of pesticide hazards, severity of a pesticide hazards, benefits of pesticide safety,
barriers to improving pesticide safety, and knowledge of improving pesticide safety. The study objectives
were to evaluate health beliefs and behaviors associated with pesticide exposure among the Khlong Seven
rice farmers from March to December 2010.


2. Materials and methods
The study research procedure was separated to two phases: (1) a preparatory phase (building connection;
community study; participant recruitment; research assistant training; pilot project) and; (2) a cross-
sectional study phase (face to face in-depth interviews, focus group discussion). Data collection from 482
rice farmers was completed by using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. Eligibility
criteria for rice farmer participants included aged 21-60 years.
The research instruments were health beliefs on pesticide use questionnaire, pesticide use behavior
questionnaire, focus group discussion guideline, and observation guideline. The health beliefs on pesticide
use questionnaire was divided into 4 sections, including perception toward the susceptibility, severity,
benefits of taking action and barriers to take action in using pesticides. This part consisted of 22 questions.
The questions were both positive and negative. Each question was scored on a five-point Likert’s scale,
ranging from strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly disagree.
The pesticide use behavior’s questionnaire was divided into 2 sections. Specifically, self-care practice in
personal health and questions concerning self-care practices when using personal protection equipment
(comprised 20 questions). These questions included personal health care behavior questions such as
cleaning their hands immediately after using pesticides; taking a bath and changing their clothes
immediately after spraying; smoking and using pesticide at the same time; wash their shirt and pants
immediately after finishing spraying; separate their shirt and pants stained with pesticides from their
family’s clothes; stand over downwind while they are spraying pesticides and; don't drink or have meal
while they are crop-dusting pesticide. The questions regarding the use of personal protective equipments
included wearing plastic gloves when they mix or touch the pesticides; wearing a long shirt and button both
at the sleeves and neck; wear long trousers while they are spraying pesticides; wearing rubber gloves while
they are spraying pesticide; wearing a mask while they are spraying pesticides; wearing a bonnet or hat
while spraying pesticides and wearing boots while spraying pesticides. The farmers had to choose one
answer from each question on a four-point, Likert’s scale which included always done, often done,
sometimes done, and never done. All the questions had the meaning as follows: Always done meant farmers
perform the dangerous protection activities from pesticides every time when they work with pesticides;
Often done meant farmers almost perform the dangerous protection activities from pesticides when they
works with pesticides or the time of doing activities are between 5-9 times from 10 times of using
pesticides; Sometimes done meant farmers sometimes perform the dangerous protection activities from
pesticides when their work related pesticides or the time amount of doing activity is not over 4 from 10
times of for using pesticides; Never done meant farmers never perform the dangerous protection activities
from pesticides when they work with pesticides.


                                                      33
Journal of Environment and Earth Science                                                       www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.2, 2012
The topics in focus group discussion guideline, and observation guideline were addressed: (1) pesticide use
in the Khlong Seven community; (2) environmental health risks regarding pesticide exposure and; (3)
recommendations for establishing a rice farmer guideline for improving pesticide safety in Khlong Seven
community. The interviews and focus group discussions were performed by research team who were
trained in interviewing techniques and briefed on the interview and discussion topics. Semi-structured, and
unstructured, open-ended interviews were performed in the farmer participants’ own homes and their work
sites. Unstructured interviews, informal discussions were used to gain rapport with the participants. In
semi-structured interviewing, an interview guide of questions was used. Questions focused on knowledge
of pesticides, beliefs regarding health risks associated with pesticide exposure, safety practices in the work
site, safety practices at home, and beliefs in work-related conditions that contribute to pesticide exposure.
The exploratory research questions presented as follows: What belief systems influence the farmers’
perceived risk of pesticide exposure? What are farmer’s perceptions regarding the severity, susceptibility,
barriers and benefits of pesticide exposure? What observed work-related and socio-cultural factors modify
pesticide exposure risks? What are the needs of farmers to improve pesticide safety in the Khlong Seven
community? All interviews lasted between 1 and 2 hours, the average been 1.5 hours. Focus group
discussions and in-depth interviews were done in a private and quiet place such as a primary health care
unit and the Khlong Seven community leader’s office. Observational data was collected by working
alongside farmers in their rice farms and in their homes in the Khlong Seven community, Pathumthani,
Thailand. The study protocol was approved according to Chulalongkorn University Ethics Committee
review guidelines for the protection of human subjects (under the study protocol No.041.2/53) Consent
forms were obtained before the data collection commenced.


3. Data Analysis
Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Frequencies and percentages were used for
demographic and occupational data. Mean and Standard deviation were used for scoring beliefs and
behaviors related to pesticide exposure. Multiple regression analysis was used for evaluating the predictors
associated with pesticide risk behaviors. Data from the questionnaire were analyzed using the SPSS
computer software. Qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis. Data were analyzed by
systematically organizing and interpreting information using categories, themes and motifs that identify
patterns and relationships. We identified patterns relationships on which to base an analysis of the findings.


4. Results
A majority of the farmer participants (54.36 %) were male. The average age of the individuals was 46.53
years and 41.08 % were between from 41 to 50 years old. Most of them (58.78%) were married. Most were
primary school educated (45.44%). Most of them (90%) stated that they were involved in pesticide spraying
during their work sites, more than half of been working with having worked with pesticides for over 10
years. Most of them (51.42%) rented the farms where they worked. Some of them owned the land for
farming, and the others rented for working. Most of them had been involved in agricultural labor for 30.53
years).
The average level of health belief and behavior regarding pesticide exposure was 3.98 and 2.78 respectively
(Figure1 and Figure 2). Farmer participants had moderate level of belief on the benefits of pesticide safety
and the protective barriers for improving pesticide safety. Receiving information about pesticide hazards
increased perceived susceptibility and severity to pesticide risk behaviors and increased the benefits of safer
pesticide behaviors. However, their risk behaviors, especially related to the use of improper personal
protective equipments, were at a remarkably high level. Where, a high perceived severity of pesticide
hazards was also correspondingly high (p<0.05) (Table 2).
The main potential pathways regarding pesticide exposures among farmers in the Khlong Seven community
included: (1) take-home pesticides resulting from pesticide residues on clothing, skin, and boots that
accumulated as farmers were working in fields; (2) ingestion from food intake that might contain pesticide
residues in foods such as fruit, vegetables or drinking water; (3) environment causes, especially if the


                                                      34
Journal of Environment and Earth Science                                                      www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.2, 2012
family home was close to the farms caused by pesticide spray or spray drift; (4) a major concern was the
farmers’ unsafe methods of mixing, loading and applying the pesticides.
Major factors of environmental health risk behaviors related to pesticide exposure in the Khlong Seven
community caused from the misuse of pesticides including erroneous beliefs of farmers about pesticide
toxicity, lack of attention to safety precautions, environmental hazards, and information about first aid and
antidotes given by the label, the use of faulty spraying equipment or lack of proper maintenance of spraying
equipment, and protective gear and appropriate clothing during handling of pesticides. More than half of
the farmer participants applied higher than recommended concentrations and did not pay any or very little
attention to labels on the chemicals and protective clothing instructions. The farmers breathed air
containing pesticides as a vapor or aerosol during spraying. They sprayed with another person working
close by and would be carried by the wind. Drinking water was often left on their work They directly
handled pesticides with their hands. The pesticides were also exposed to their eyes because of improper
personal protection such as visors or splash proof goggles. They poured pesticide directly into a spray tank
without rubber gloves. Another problem was they often stored the pesticide equipment in their houses, not
in a locked storage area. This storage was often close to other household activities and where the children
were able to access the storage area. The major sources of waste chemicals and solid wastes were through
contamination including defective and expired bottles and pesticide’s containers. The waste chemical drums
and different contaminated solid waste were not placed on impervious floors. This had the potential to
cause contamination of soil, groundwater, cannels, and reservoirs from the leakage and spillage. In most
cases, the farmers disposed the empty pesticide containers within the farm (89.94%) by selling, leaving it in
the field, or reutilization for other purposes (e.g., for food and water storage). On some farms, the empty
containers were taken to the local waste containers or to a pesticide container disposal facility.
Acute pesticide poisoning symptoms mostly found in the Khlong Seven community included nausea,
vomiting, dizziness, skin irritation, skin rash, nasal irritation, weakness and eye irritation, headache,
fainting and fatigue. Some farmers reported, “I think there is much more awareness of pesticides now than
there had been over 30 years ago”. They agreed that pesticides helped protect crops but resulted in ill
effects for farmers. Although, many farmers knew that regulations existed to protect them from pesticide
exposure more than 80% said there was little to no enforcement of the regulations. Regarding protective
clothing, the response by one farmer exemplified the view expressed by many other farmers: “personal
protective equipments, which were supposed to be worn in some job capacities were hot and uncomfortable
and were rarely provided”.
Most of the farmers reported using pesticide products containing the organophosphate pesticide as active
ingredient, the most popular brand name in the Khlong Seven community was “Abamectin”. The next most
frequently used active ingredient was carbamate. Among the herbicides, glyphosate was most frequently
mentioned. Most of the farmers reported working 8–10 hours a day during the growing season, with
pesticide application occurring for 3–8 days each month. Almost all farmers (66.67%) had an area outside
the farmhouse for storage of the pesticide products, while the rest reported storing these products inside
their houses.


5. Discussion
The primary influence that impeded farmers’ using personal protective equipment was financial.
Additionally, farmers did not wear personal protective equipment because it interfered with their work. For
example, although gloves, boots, protective lenses, and hats are available at local stores, economic barriers
may preclude the farmers from purchasing them. In the focus groups discussions, farmers expressed
frustration with not being provided personal protective equipments, and some felt that employers should be
required to provide this to all farmers, not just those who handle pesticides. Despite the fact that the great
majority of the farmer participants in this study had a clear perception that pesticides could harm their
health, the use of personal protective equipments during pesticide application was not a common practice in
this community. Farmers with little formal education might be at higher risk when using pesticides due to
difficulties in understanding the instructions and safety procedures included on the product labels. Although
trained health care personnel can provide instructions and safety procedures, this information is not

                                                     35
Journal of Environment and Earth Science                                                       www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.2, 2012
necessarily understood by the farmers and/or incorporated into their daily agricultural practices.
Similarly to this study, Isin & Yildirim (2007) have reported that although, farmers read the
recommendations and instructions on pesticide’s label, less than 60% of them exactly followed the
directions. Some of them prefer to use unsuitable pesticides in order to ensure the yield and quality of
fruits. Several factors might account for this apparent reckless attitude regarding self-protection by the
farmers. In addition, using the questionnaires to measure the risk behaviors regarding to the use of
pesticides might not accurately reflect the actual behaviors of the participants. The successful
implementation and program sustainability of pesticide safety relies on maintaining crop yield and
increasing farmer earnings. Clearly, there is need for educational intervention efforts to stress the health
impacts and environmental issues from pesticide use in this study area. Greater enforcement of regulations
regarding field and housing sanitation are needed as well as to enhance the level of substantive dialogue
with government policy makers.


6. Conclusions
Although the rice farmers in Khlong Seven community recognize the potential harm of pesticides to human
health and the environment, transforming this knowledge into practical actions that result in lower levels of
exposure might prove a complex task. We elucidated farmers’ pesticide relevant beliefs regarding perceived
severity and susceptibility to pesticides especially pesticides, the need to support safety second to financial
considerations. In addition, governmental actions, such as interdiction or restrictions on the use of
pesticides and enforcement of good agricultural practices, including the use of safety equipment, are needed
to decrease the pesticide exposure of the farmers. Recommendation guidelines to improve pesticide safety
focused on environmental health safety associated with pesticide exposure, pesticides safe handling and
use, pesticides poisoning and management. These findings call for interventions that involve and engage
multiple stakeholders aimed at increasing the adoption of pesticide safety behaviors and reducing pesticide
exposure in farmers.


7. Acknowledgements
This research was financially supported by Thai Fogarty ITREOH Center (Grant NO. D43TW007849 NIH
FIC and NIEHS P30ES005022), the College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University,
Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University and the Office of the Civil Service Commission, Thailand.


8. References
Alavanja, M., Hoppin, J., & Kamel, F. (2004). Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and
neurotoxicity. Annu Rev Public Health, 25, 155–197.
Becker, M.H., Radius S.M., & Rosenstock, I.M. (1978). Compliance with a medical regimen for asthma: a
test of the health belief model, Public Health Reports, 93, 268-677.
Blondell, J.M. (2007). Decline in pesticide poisonings in the United States from 1995 to 2004. Clin Toxicol,
45, 589–892.
Bureau of Epidemiology. Department of Disease Control. Ministry of Public Health (MOPH). Surveillance
data. [online] Available: http://epid.moph.go.th. (July 19, 2009).
Calvert, G.M., Karnik, J., Mehler, L., Beckman. J., Morrissey, B., Sievert, J., Barrett, R., Lackovic, M.,
Mabee, L., Schwartz, A., Mitchell, Y., & Moraga-McHaley, S. (2008). Acute pesticide poisoning among
agricultural workers in the United States, 1998–2005. Am J Ind Med, 5, 883–898.
Ecobichon, D.J. (2001). Pesticide use in developing countries. Toxicology, 160, 27–33.
Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K., & Lewis F.M., (2002). Health Behavior and Health Education. Theory, Research
and Practice. San Francisco: Wiley & Sons.
Hemmi, K., & Cool, J.C. (1995). Educating New Environmental Leadership for Asia. Arlington, VA:


                                                      36
Journal of Environment and Earth Science                                                            www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.2, 2012
Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development.
Isin, S., & Yildirim, I. (2007). Fruit-growers’ Perceptions on the Harmful Effects of Pesticides and their
Reflection Practices: The Case of Kemalpasa, Turkey. Crop Protection, 26, 917-922.
Keifer, M.C., & Firestone, J. (2007). Neurotoxicity of pesticides. J Agromed, 12, 17–25.
Klein-Schwartz, W., & Smith, G. (1997). Agricultural and horticultural chemical poisonings: mortality and
morbidity in the United States. Ann Emerg Med, 29, 232–38.
Mburu, F., & Ties Boerma, J. (1989). Community-based health care 10 years post Alma Ata. Sci. Med, 28,
1005-1006.
Robson, M., Hamilton, G., & Brachman, G. (2001). Case study on chronic organophosphate poisoning. New
Solut, 11, 243–249.
Siriwong. W., Thirakhupt, K., Sitticharoenchai, D., Rohitrattana, J., Thongkongowm, P., Borjan, M., &
Robson, M. (2008). A preliminary human health risk assessment of organochlorine pesticide residues
associated with aquatic organisms from the Rangsit Agricultural Area, Central Thailand. Human Ecol Risk
Assess, 4, 1086–897.
Weisenburger, D.D. (1993). Human health effects of agrichemical use. Human Pathology, 24(12), 1383-6.
WHO, UNEP. (1990). Public health impact of pesticides used in agriculture, Geneva: WHO.
Winchester, P.d., Huskins, J., &Ying, J. (1992). Agrichemicals in surface water and birth defects in the
United States. Acta paediatrica, 98, 664–9.



Buppha Raksanam is Academic Lecturer in Public Health Program (Community Health, Technician
Pharmacy, Dental Public Health) At Sirindhon College of Public Health Trang, Thailand. Buppha received
Bachelor degree of Pharmacy from Khonkean University, Thailand and Master degree of Pharmacy from
Prince of Songkha University, Thailand.


Surasak Taneepanichskul is the Dean of the College of Public Health Sciences (CPHS), Chulalongkorn
University. Thailand. He received a M.D. form Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Diploma
clinical science (OB & GYN) from Chulalongkorn University, Master of Medicine (Public Health) from
National University of Singapore, and Bachelor of Law from Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University,
Thailand.


Wattasit Siriwong is a faculty member, Assistant Dean, and an executive board member of the College of
Public Health Sciences (CPHS), Chulalongkorn University. Thailand. He received a Bachelor of Science in
Biotechnology from Mahidol University, Master of Science degree in Environmental Science from Thammasat
University and his Doctoral degree in Environmental Management from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. Dr.
Wattasit is an active researcher in the field of environmental health. He is also a member of the editorial board of
International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health and Journal of Health Research.


Mark Gregory Robson Mark Gregory Robson is the Dean of Agricultural and Urban Programs and Professor of
Entomology at Rutgers University-School of Environmental and Biological Sciences and Professor of
Environmental and Occupational Health the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ)
School of Public Health (SPH). He graduated with a B.S. with High Honors (1977) M.S. (1979) and Ph.D.


                                                        37
Journal of Environment and Earth Science                                               www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.2, 2012
(1988) from Rutgers University and M.P.H. (1995) from UMDNJ SPH. Dr. Robson received an honorary
doctoral degree in Public Health from Chulalongkorn University in 2010.



     Table 1. Demographic data


                        Characteristics (n = 482)                         No   (%)
                        Gender
                          Male                                        262      54.36
                          Female                                      177      45.64
                        Age (Years)
                          ≤ 30                                            34   7.05
                          31-40                                           79   16.39
                          41-50                                       198      41.08
                          51-60                                       171      35.48
                          > 60                                            0    0.00
                          Mean + SD = 46.53 +11.19
                          Range = 21 – 60
                        Marital Status
                         Single                                       112      23.24
                         Married                                      283      58.71
                         Widow                                            50   10.37
                         Divorced                                         37   7.68
                        Education
                         Uneducated                                       -    0.00
                         Primary school                               219      45.44
                         Secondary 1school                            208      43.15
                         Under Bachelor degree                            48   9.96
                         Bachelor degree & higher                         7    1.45
                        Income (Bath/Month)
                         ≤ 3500                                           32   6.64
                         > 3,500 – 5,000                                  54   11.20
                         > 5,000 - 10,000                             301      62.45
                         > 10,000-20,000                                  85   17.63
                         > 20,000                                         10   2.07
                         Mean +SD = 6988.35 +3511.10 baht
                        Duration in agriculture occupation
                         Mean + SD = 30.53 + 11.19 years
                         Range = 1- 55 years




                                                     38
Journal of Environment and Earth Science                                                    www.iiste.org
ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online)
Vol 2, No.2, 2012
                        Characteristics (n = 482)                  No       (%)
                        Type of ownership
                          Owner                                    148      30.71
                          Renter                                   248      51.45
                          Owner and renter                         47       17.84


Table 2. Multiple regression analysis regarding to pesticide use behaviors and health beliefs


                              Factors                               B      SD       Beta     T      Sig.
Constant                                                           1.89    .313             6.05    .000
Perceived severity to pesticide hazards                            .398    .024     .595    16.29   .001*
Perceived susceptibility of pesticide hazards                      -.015   .049     -.011   -.307   .759
Perceived the protective barriers of improving pesticide safety    -.165   .055     -.116   -2.98   .053
Perceived benefits of pesticide safety                             -.018   .054     -.013   -.338   .735


   ** Relationships at statistical significant level 0.05




                                                       (Beliefs)




                                                       39
International Journals Call for Paper
The IISTE, a U.S. publisher, is currently hosting the academic journals listed below. The peer review process of the following journals
usually takes LESS THAN 14 business days and IISTE usually publishes a qualified article within 30 days. Authors should
send their full paper to the following email address. More information can be found in the IISTE website : www.iiste.org

Business, Economics, Finance and Management               PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL
European Journal of Business and Management               EJBM@iiste.org
Research Journal of Finance and Accounting                RJFA@iiste.org
Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development          JESD@iiste.org
Information and Knowledge Management                      IKM@iiste.org
Developing Country Studies                                DCS@iiste.org
Industrial Engineering Letters                            IEL@iiste.org


Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Chemistry              PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL
Journal of Natural Sciences Research                      JNSR@iiste.org
Chemistry and Materials Research                          CMR@iiste.org
Mathematical Theory and Modeling                          MTM@iiste.org
Advances in Physics Theories and Applications             APTA@iiste.org
Chemical and Process Engineering Research                 CPER@iiste.org


Engineering, Technology and Systems                       PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL
Computer Engineering and Intelligent Systems              CEIS@iiste.org
Innovative Systems Design and Engineering                 ISDE@iiste.org
Journal of Energy Technologies and Policy                 JETP@iiste.org
Information and Knowledge Management                      IKM@iiste.org
Control Theory and Informatics                            CTI@iiste.org
Journal of Information Engineering and Applications       JIEA@iiste.org
Industrial Engineering Letters                            IEL@iiste.org
Network and Complex Systems                               NCS@iiste.org


Environment, Civil, Materials Sciences                    PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL
Journal of Environment and Earth Science                  JEES@iiste.org
Civil and Environmental Research                          CER@iiste.org
Journal of Natural Sciences Research                      JNSR@iiste.org
Civil and Environmental Research                          CER@iiste.org


Life Science, Food and Medical Sciences                   PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL
Journal of Natural Sciences Research                      JNSR@iiste.org
Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare            JBAH@iiste.org
Food Science and Quality Management                       FSQM@iiste.org
Chemistry and Materials Research                          CMR@iiste.org


Education, and other Social Sciences                      PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL
Journal of Education and Practice                         JEP@iiste.org
Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization                  JLPG@iiste.org                       Global knowledge sharing:
New Media and Mass Communication                          NMMC@iiste.org                       EBSCO, Index Copernicus, Ulrich's
Journal of Energy Technologies and Policy                 JETP@iiste.org                       Periodicals Directory, JournalTOCS, PKP
Historical Research Letter                                HRL@iiste.org                        Open Archives Harvester, Bielefeld
                                                                                               Academic Search Engine, Elektronische
Public Policy and Administration Research                 PPAR@iiste.org                       Zeitschriftenbibliothek EZB, Open J-Gate,
International Affairs and Global Strategy                 IAGS@iiste.org                       OCLC WorldCat, Universe Digtial Library ,
Research on Humanities and Social Sciences                RHSS@iiste.org                       NewJour, Google Scholar.

Developing Country Studies                                DCS@iiste.org                        IISTE is member of CrossRef. All journals
Arts and Design Studies                                   ADS@iiste.org                        have high IC Impact Factor Values (ICV).

More Related Content

What's hot

G0255057064
G0255057064G0255057064
G0255057064theijes
 
Microbial Resistance and the Consequences of Pharmaceuticals in Animal Produc...
Microbial Resistance and the Consequences of Pharmaceuticals in Animal Produc...Microbial Resistance and the Consequences of Pharmaceuticals in Animal Produc...
Microbial Resistance and the Consequences of Pharmaceuticals in Animal Produc...jlojoseph
 
ultraviolet light and ultrasound as non thermal treatments
ultraviolet light and ultrasound as non thermal treatmentsultraviolet light and ultrasound as non thermal treatments
ultraviolet light and ultrasound as non thermal treatmentsImer Ruben Gonzales Sobrados
 
Medicinal Plant’s Potential Activity against Skin Disease-causing Bacteria an...
Medicinal Plant’s Potential Activity against Skin Disease-causing Bacteria an...Medicinal Plant’s Potential Activity against Skin Disease-causing Bacteria an...
Medicinal Plant’s Potential Activity against Skin Disease-causing Bacteria an...BRNSS Publication Hub
 
Control of wax moth, galleria mellonella l
Control of wax moth, galleria mellonella lControl of wax moth, galleria mellonella l
Control of wax moth, galleria mellonella lAlexander Decker
 
IRJET- Disease Detection in the Leaves of Multiple Plants
IRJET- Disease Detection in the Leaves of Multiple PlantsIRJET- Disease Detection in the Leaves of Multiple Plants
IRJET- Disease Detection in the Leaves of Multiple PlantsIRJET Journal
 
Advances in integrative nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatme...
Advances in integrative nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatme...Advances in integrative nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatme...
Advances in integrative nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatme...home
 
A preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolic
A preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolicA preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolic
A preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolicAlexander Decker
 
preprint Pdf book epidemiology and diffusion of some relevant virus latitude...
 preprint Pdf book epidemiology and diffusion of some relevant virus latitude... preprint Pdf book epidemiology and diffusion of some relevant virus latitude...
preprint Pdf book epidemiology and diffusion of some relevant virus latitude...M. Luisetto Pharm.D.Spec. Pharmacology
 
Thesis Paper PDF
Thesis Paper PDFThesis Paper PDF
Thesis Paper PDFmd al amin
 
Apps covid 19 immunological and toxicological implication innate immune senso...
Apps covid 19 immunological and toxicological implication innate immune senso...Apps covid 19 immunological and toxicological implication innate immune senso...
Apps covid 19 immunological and toxicological implication innate immune senso...M. Luisetto Pharm.D.Spec. Pharmacology
 
Excess use of Hand Sanitizers may lead to Antibiotic Resistance?
Excess use of Hand Sanitizers may lead to Antibiotic Resistance?Excess use of Hand Sanitizers may lead to Antibiotic Resistance?
Excess use of Hand Sanitizers may lead to Antibiotic Resistance?asclepiuspdfs
 
Persistence and Mobility of Imidacloprid and Abamectin Residues
Persistence and Mobility of Imidacloprid and Abamectin ResiduesPersistence and Mobility of Imidacloprid and Abamectin Residues
Persistence and Mobility of Imidacloprid and Abamectin ResiduesMarwan Haddad
 
Assessment of Food Safety and Sanitation Standards of Canteens in Nueva Ecija
Assessment of Food Safety and Sanitation Standards of Canteens in Nueva EcijaAssessment of Food Safety and Sanitation Standards of Canteens in Nueva Ecija
Assessment of Food Safety and Sanitation Standards of Canteens in Nueva EcijaIJAEMSJORNAL
 
Ecotoxicology-Study aspects
Ecotoxicology-Study aspectsEcotoxicology-Study aspects
Ecotoxicology-Study aspectsijtsrd
 

What's hot (19)

Nano particle based formulation and evalutation of immune enhancement of immu...
Nano particle based formulation and evalutation of immune enhancement of immu...Nano particle based formulation and evalutation of immune enhancement of immu...
Nano particle based formulation and evalutation of immune enhancement of immu...
 
G0255057064
G0255057064G0255057064
G0255057064
 
Dietary Exposures To Food Contaminants
Dietary Exposures To Food ContaminantsDietary Exposures To Food Contaminants
Dietary Exposures To Food Contaminants
 
Public health
Public healthPublic health
Public health
 
Microbial Resistance and the Consequences of Pharmaceuticals in Animal Produc...
Microbial Resistance and the Consequences of Pharmaceuticals in Animal Produc...Microbial Resistance and the Consequences of Pharmaceuticals in Animal Produc...
Microbial Resistance and the Consequences of Pharmaceuticals in Animal Produc...
 
ultraviolet light and ultrasound as non thermal treatments
ultraviolet light and ultrasound as non thermal treatmentsultraviolet light and ultrasound as non thermal treatments
ultraviolet light and ultrasound as non thermal treatments
 
Medicinal Plant’s Potential Activity against Skin Disease-causing Bacteria an...
Medicinal Plant’s Potential Activity against Skin Disease-causing Bacteria an...Medicinal Plant’s Potential Activity against Skin Disease-causing Bacteria an...
Medicinal Plant’s Potential Activity against Skin Disease-causing Bacteria an...
 
Pomegranate fuzzy
Pomegranate   fuzzyPomegranate   fuzzy
Pomegranate fuzzy
 
Control of wax moth, galleria mellonella l
Control of wax moth, galleria mellonella lControl of wax moth, galleria mellonella l
Control of wax moth, galleria mellonella l
 
IRJET- Disease Detection in the Leaves of Multiple Plants
IRJET- Disease Detection in the Leaves of Multiple PlantsIRJET- Disease Detection in the Leaves of Multiple Plants
IRJET- Disease Detection in the Leaves of Multiple Plants
 
Advances in integrative nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatme...
Advances in integrative nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatme...Advances in integrative nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatme...
Advances in integrative nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatme...
 
A preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolic
A preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolicA preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolic
A preliminary study on antibacterial efficacy of the methanolic
 
preprint Pdf book epidemiology and diffusion of some relevant virus latitude...
 preprint Pdf book epidemiology and diffusion of some relevant virus latitude... preprint Pdf book epidemiology and diffusion of some relevant virus latitude...
preprint Pdf book epidemiology and diffusion of some relevant virus latitude...
 
Thesis Paper PDF
Thesis Paper PDFThesis Paper PDF
Thesis Paper PDF
 
Apps covid 19 immunological and toxicological implication innate immune senso...
Apps covid 19 immunological and toxicological implication innate immune senso...Apps covid 19 immunological and toxicological implication innate immune senso...
Apps covid 19 immunological and toxicological implication innate immune senso...
 
Excess use of Hand Sanitizers may lead to Antibiotic Resistance?
Excess use of Hand Sanitizers may lead to Antibiotic Resistance?Excess use of Hand Sanitizers may lead to Antibiotic Resistance?
Excess use of Hand Sanitizers may lead to Antibiotic Resistance?
 
Persistence and Mobility of Imidacloprid and Abamectin Residues
Persistence and Mobility of Imidacloprid and Abamectin ResiduesPersistence and Mobility of Imidacloprid and Abamectin Residues
Persistence and Mobility of Imidacloprid and Abamectin Residues
 
Assessment of Food Safety and Sanitation Standards of Canteens in Nueva Ecija
Assessment of Food Safety and Sanitation Standards of Canteens in Nueva EcijaAssessment of Food Safety and Sanitation Standards of Canteens in Nueva Ecija
Assessment of Food Safety and Sanitation Standards of Canteens in Nueva Ecija
 
Ecotoxicology-Study aspects
Ecotoxicology-Study aspectsEcotoxicology-Study aspects
Ecotoxicology-Study aspects
 

Similar to 11.factors associated with pesticide risk behaviors among rice farmers in rural community, thailand

Impact of Pesticides on Farmer’s Health of Western Odisha
Impact of Pesticides on Farmer’s Health of Western OdishaImpact of Pesticides on Farmer’s Health of Western Odisha
Impact of Pesticides on Farmer’s Health of Western OdishaAgriculture Journal IJOEAR
 
Evaluation of Pesticide Safety Measures Adopted by Potato Farmers in Chebiemi...
Evaluation of Pesticide Safety Measures Adopted by Potato Farmers in Chebiemi...Evaluation of Pesticide Safety Measures Adopted by Potato Farmers in Chebiemi...
Evaluation of Pesticide Safety Measures Adopted by Potato Farmers in Chebiemi...BRNSSPublicationHubI
 
EnvironmentalResearch.pdf
EnvironmentalResearch.pdfEnvironmentalResearch.pdf
EnvironmentalResearch.pdfazhari80
 
Social Science Research Presentation.pptx
Social Science Research Presentation.pptxSocial Science Research Presentation.pptx
Social Science Research Presentation.pptxNazmulislambappy
 
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)theijes
 
Pesticide residues in food
Pesticide residues in foodPesticide residues in food
Pesticide residues in foodNik Ronaidi
 
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...paperpublications3
 
Assessment of the elderly and their caregivers' practices
Assessment of the elderly and their caregivers' practicesAssessment of the elderly and their caregivers' practices
Assessment of the elderly and their caregivers' practicesAlexander Decker
 
2 EH Overview_Medex 31Mac 2022.pptx
2 EH Overview_Medex 31Mac 2022.pptx2 EH Overview_Medex 31Mac 2022.pptx
2 EH Overview_Medex 31Mac 2022.pptxLuqmanJunid
 
Perspectives on One Health/EcoHealth
Perspectives on One Health/EcoHealthPerspectives on One Health/EcoHealth
Perspectives on One Health/EcoHealthILRI
 
Mediating Effects of Intention On The Factors Affecting Organic Food Products...
Mediating Effects of Intention On The Factors Affecting Organic Food Products...Mediating Effects of Intention On The Factors Affecting Organic Food Products...
Mediating Effects of Intention On The Factors Affecting Organic Food Products...CSCJournals
 
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...paperpublications3
 
Pesticide impact on human and environment
Pesticide impact on human and environmentPesticide impact on human and environment
Pesticide impact on human and environmentDr. Binoy Tripura
 
Chemical education transfer for safe practice improvement regarding volatile ...
Chemical education transfer for safe practice improvement regarding volatile ...Chemical education transfer for safe practice improvement regarding volatile ...
Chemical education transfer for safe practice improvement regarding volatile ...Alexander Decker
 
Bioethics and biosafety issues
Bioethics and biosafety issuesBioethics and biosafety issues
Bioethics and biosafety issuesHarshaAsiwal
 
Sustainability of scientific maize cultivation practices in uttar pradesh, india
Sustainability of scientific maize cultivation practices in uttar pradesh, indiaSustainability of scientific maize cultivation practices in uttar pradesh, india
Sustainability of scientific maize cultivation practices in uttar pradesh, indiaAlexander Decker
 
Consumer attitude towards organic food in trichy south india
Consumer attitude towards organic food in trichy south indiaConsumer attitude towards organic food in trichy south india
Consumer attitude towards organic food in trichy south indiaIAEME Publication
 
Bio-Safety Guidelines
Bio-Safety GuidelinesBio-Safety Guidelines
Bio-Safety GuidelinesShahbaz Ahmad
 
Prospects for using pesticides in agriculture
Prospects for using pesticides in agriculture Prospects for using pesticides in agriculture
Prospects for using pesticides in agriculture Olutosin Ademola Otekunrin
 

Similar to 11.factors associated with pesticide risk behaviors among rice farmers in rural community, thailand (20)

Impact of Pesticides on Farmer’s Health of Western Odisha
Impact of Pesticides on Farmer’s Health of Western OdishaImpact of Pesticides on Farmer’s Health of Western Odisha
Impact of Pesticides on Farmer’s Health of Western Odisha
 
Evaluation of Pesticide Safety Measures Adopted by Potato Farmers in Chebiemi...
Evaluation of Pesticide Safety Measures Adopted by Potato Farmers in Chebiemi...Evaluation of Pesticide Safety Measures Adopted by Potato Farmers in Chebiemi...
Evaluation of Pesticide Safety Measures Adopted by Potato Farmers in Chebiemi...
 
EnvironmentalResearch.pdf
EnvironmentalResearch.pdfEnvironmentalResearch.pdf
EnvironmentalResearch.pdf
 
Social Science Research Presentation.pptx
Social Science Research Presentation.pptxSocial Science Research Presentation.pptx
Social Science Research Presentation.pptx
 
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)
The International Journal of Engineering and Science (The IJES)
 
Pesticide residues in food
Pesticide residues in foodPesticide residues in food
Pesticide residues in food
 
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
 
Assessment of the elderly and their caregivers' practices
Assessment of the elderly and their caregivers' practicesAssessment of the elderly and their caregivers' practices
Assessment of the elderly and their caregivers' practices
 
2 EH Overview_Medex 31Mac 2022.pptx
2 EH Overview_Medex 31Mac 2022.pptx2 EH Overview_Medex 31Mac 2022.pptx
2 EH Overview_Medex 31Mac 2022.pptx
 
Perspectives on One Health/EcoHealth
Perspectives on One Health/EcoHealthPerspectives on One Health/EcoHealth
Perspectives on One Health/EcoHealth
 
Mediating Effects of Intention On The Factors Affecting Organic Food Products...
Mediating Effects of Intention On The Factors Affecting Organic Food Products...Mediating Effects of Intention On The Factors Affecting Organic Food Products...
Mediating Effects of Intention On The Factors Affecting Organic Food Products...
 
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
STUDY ON IMPACTS OF ORGANIC FOOD PRODUCTION TO THE ENVIORNMENT: A CASE OF KAZ...
 
Pesticide impact on human and environment
Pesticide impact on human and environmentPesticide impact on human and environment
Pesticide impact on human and environment
 
Chemical education transfer for safe practice improvement regarding volatile ...
Chemical education transfer for safe practice improvement regarding volatile ...Chemical education transfer for safe practice improvement regarding volatile ...
Chemical education transfer for safe practice improvement regarding volatile ...
 
Bioethics and biosafety issues
Bioethics and biosafety issuesBioethics and biosafety issues
Bioethics and biosafety issues
 
Sustainability of scientific maize cultivation practices in uttar pradesh, india
Sustainability of scientific maize cultivation practices in uttar pradesh, indiaSustainability of scientific maize cultivation practices in uttar pradesh, india
Sustainability of scientific maize cultivation practices in uttar pradesh, india
 
Consumer attitude towards organic food in trichy south india
Consumer attitude towards organic food in trichy south indiaConsumer attitude towards organic food in trichy south india
Consumer attitude towards organic food in trichy south india
 
Bio-Safety Guidelines
Bio-Safety GuidelinesBio-Safety Guidelines
Bio-Safety Guidelines
 
Prospects for using pesticides in agriculture
Prospects for using pesticides in agriculture Prospects for using pesticides in agriculture
Prospects for using pesticides in agriculture
 
E1033339
E1033339E1033339
E1033339
 

More from Alexander Decker

Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Alexander Decker
 
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale inA validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale inAlexander Decker
 
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesA usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesAlexander Decker
 
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksA universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
 
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dA unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dAlexander Decker
 
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceA trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceAlexander Decker
 
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
A transformational  generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamA transformational  generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamAlexander Decker
 
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaA time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaAlexander Decker
 
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenA therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenAlexander Decker
 
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksA theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksAlexander Decker
 
A systematic evaluation of link budget for
A systematic evaluation of link budget forA systematic evaluation of link budget for
A systematic evaluation of link budget forAlexander Decker
 
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabA synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabAlexander Decker
 
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...Alexander Decker
 
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalA survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalAlexander Decker
 
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesA survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesAlexander Decker
 
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbA survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbAlexander Decker
 
A survey on challenges to the media cloud
A survey on challenges to the media cloudA survey on challenges to the media cloud
A survey on challenges to the media cloudAlexander Decker
 
A survey of provenance leveraged
A survey of provenance leveragedA survey of provenance leveraged
A survey of provenance leveragedAlexander Decker
 
A survey of private equity investments in kenya
A survey of private equity investments in kenyaA survey of private equity investments in kenya
A survey of private equity investments in kenyaAlexander Decker
 
A study to measures the financial health of
A study to measures the financial health ofA study to measures the financial health of
A study to measures the financial health ofAlexander Decker
 

More from Alexander Decker (20)

Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
Abnormalities of hormones and inflammatory cytokines in women affected with p...
 
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale inA validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
A validation of the adverse childhood experiences scale in
 
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websitesA usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
A usability evaluation framework for b2 c e commerce websites
 
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksA universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A universal model for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
 
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized dA unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
A unique common fixed point theorems in generalized d
 
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistanceA trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
A trends of salmonella and antibiotic resistance
 
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
A transformational  generative approach towards understanding al-istifhamA transformational  generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
A transformational generative approach towards understanding al-istifham
 
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibiaA time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
A time series analysis of the determinants of savings in namibia
 
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school childrenA therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
A therapy for physical and mental fitness of school children
 
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banksA theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
A theory of efficiency for managing the marketing executives in nigerian banks
 
A systematic evaluation of link budget for
A systematic evaluation of link budget forA systematic evaluation of link budget for
A systematic evaluation of link budget for
 
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjabA synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
A synthetic review of contraceptive supplies in punjab
 
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
A synthesis of taylor’s and fayol’s management approaches for managing market...
 
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incrementalA survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
A survey paper on sequence pattern mining with incremental
 
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniquesA survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
A survey on live virtual machine migrations and its techniques
 
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo dbA survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
A survey on data mining and analysis in hadoop and mongo db
 
A survey on challenges to the media cloud
A survey on challenges to the media cloudA survey on challenges to the media cloud
A survey on challenges to the media cloud
 
A survey of provenance leveraged
A survey of provenance leveragedA survey of provenance leveraged
A survey of provenance leveraged
 
A survey of private equity investments in kenya
A survey of private equity investments in kenyaA survey of private equity investments in kenya
A survey of private equity investments in kenya
 
A study to measures the financial health of
A study to measures the financial health ofA study to measures the financial health of
A study to measures the financial health of
 

Recently uploaded

Adenomyosis or Fibroid- making right diagnosis
Adenomyosis or Fibroid- making right diagnosisAdenomyosis or Fibroid- making right diagnosis
Adenomyosis or Fibroid- making right diagnosisSujoy Dasgupta
 
FDMA FLAP - The first dorsal metacarpal artery (FDMA) flap is used mainly for...
FDMA FLAP - The first dorsal metacarpal artery (FDMA) flap is used mainly for...FDMA FLAP - The first dorsal metacarpal artery (FDMA) flap is used mainly for...
FDMA FLAP - The first dorsal metacarpal artery (FDMA) flap is used mainly for...Shubhanshu Gaurav
 
pA2 value, Schild plot and pD2 values- applications in pharmacology
pA2 value, Schild plot and pD2 values- applications in pharmacologypA2 value, Schild plot and pD2 values- applications in pharmacology
pA2 value, Schild plot and pD2 values- applications in pharmacologyDeepakDaniel9
 
MedMatch: Your Health, Our Mission. Pitch deck.
MedMatch: Your Health, Our Mission. Pitch deck.MedMatch: Your Health, Our Mission. Pitch deck.
MedMatch: Your Health, Our Mission. Pitch deck.whalesdesign
 
AORTIC DISSECTION and management of aortic dissection
AORTIC DISSECTION and management of aortic dissectionAORTIC DISSECTION and management of aortic dissection
AORTIC DISSECTION and management of aortic dissectiondrhanifmohdali
 
Female Reproductive Physiology Before Pregnancy
Female Reproductive Physiology Before PregnancyFemale Reproductive Physiology Before Pregnancy
Female Reproductive Physiology Before PregnancyMedicoseAcademics
 
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM organization and functions
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM organization and functionsAUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM organization and functions
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM organization and functionsMedicoseAcademics
 
Pharmacokinetic Models by Dr. Ram D. Bawankar.ppt
Pharmacokinetic Models by Dr. Ram D.  Bawankar.pptPharmacokinetic Models by Dr. Ram D.  Bawankar.ppt
Pharmacokinetic Models by Dr. Ram D. Bawankar.pptRamDBawankar1
 
Bulimia nervosa ( Eating Disorders) Mental Health Nursing.
Bulimia nervosa ( Eating Disorders) Mental Health Nursing.Bulimia nervosa ( Eating Disorders) Mental Health Nursing.
Bulimia nervosa ( Eating Disorders) Mental Health Nursing.aarjukhadka22
 
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdfSGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdfHongBiThi1
 
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024EwoutSteyerberg1
 
CPR.nursingoutlook.pdf , Bsc nursing student
CPR.nursingoutlook.pdf , Bsc nursing studentCPR.nursingoutlook.pdf , Bsc nursing student
CPR.nursingoutlook.pdf , Bsc nursing studentsaileshpanda05
 
Basic structure of hair and hair growth cycle.pptx
Basic structure of hair and hair growth cycle.pptxBasic structure of hair and hair growth cycle.pptx
Basic structure of hair and hair growth cycle.pptxkomalt2001
 
PAIN/CLASSIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PAIN.pdf
PAIN/CLASSIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PAIN.pdfPAIN/CLASSIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PAIN.pdf
PAIN/CLASSIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PAIN.pdfDolisha Warbi
 
SGK LEUKEMIA KINH DÒNG BẠCH CÂU HẠT HAY.pdf
SGK LEUKEMIA KINH DÒNG BẠCH CÂU HẠT HAY.pdfSGK LEUKEMIA KINH DÒNG BẠCH CÂU HẠT HAY.pdf
SGK LEUKEMIA KINH DÒNG BẠCH CÂU HẠT HAY.pdfHongBiThi1
 
How to cure cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis naturally
How to cure cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis naturallyHow to cure cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis naturally
How to cure cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis naturallyZurück zum Ursprung
 
ANATOMICAL FAETURES OF BONES FOR NURSING STUDENTS .pptx
ANATOMICAL FAETURES OF BONES  FOR NURSING STUDENTS .pptxANATOMICAL FAETURES OF BONES  FOR NURSING STUDENTS .pptx
ANATOMICAL FAETURES OF BONES FOR NURSING STUDENTS .pptxWINCY THIRUMURUGAN
 
BENIGN BREAST DISEASE
BENIGN BREAST DISEASE BENIGN BREAST DISEASE
BENIGN BREAST DISEASE Mamatha Lakka
 

Recently uploaded (20)

Adenomyosis or Fibroid- making right diagnosis
Adenomyosis or Fibroid- making right diagnosisAdenomyosis or Fibroid- making right diagnosis
Adenomyosis or Fibroid- making right diagnosis
 
FDMA FLAP - The first dorsal metacarpal artery (FDMA) flap is used mainly for...
FDMA FLAP - The first dorsal metacarpal artery (FDMA) flap is used mainly for...FDMA FLAP - The first dorsal metacarpal artery (FDMA) flap is used mainly for...
FDMA FLAP - The first dorsal metacarpal artery (FDMA) flap is used mainly for...
 
pA2 value, Schild plot and pD2 values- applications in pharmacology
pA2 value, Schild plot and pD2 values- applications in pharmacologypA2 value, Schild plot and pD2 values- applications in pharmacology
pA2 value, Schild plot and pD2 values- applications in pharmacology
 
MedMatch: Your Health, Our Mission. Pitch deck.
MedMatch: Your Health, Our Mission. Pitch deck.MedMatch: Your Health, Our Mission. Pitch deck.
MedMatch: Your Health, Our Mission. Pitch deck.
 
AORTIC DISSECTION and management of aortic dissection
AORTIC DISSECTION and management of aortic dissectionAORTIC DISSECTION and management of aortic dissection
AORTIC DISSECTION and management of aortic dissection
 
Female Reproductive Physiology Before Pregnancy
Female Reproductive Physiology Before PregnancyFemale Reproductive Physiology Before Pregnancy
Female Reproductive Physiology Before Pregnancy
 
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM organization and functions
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM organization and functionsAUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM organization and functions
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM organization and functions
 
Pharmacokinetic Models by Dr. Ram D. Bawankar.ppt
Pharmacokinetic Models by Dr. Ram D.  Bawankar.pptPharmacokinetic Models by Dr. Ram D.  Bawankar.ppt
Pharmacokinetic Models by Dr. Ram D. Bawankar.ppt
 
Bulimia nervosa ( Eating Disorders) Mental Health Nursing.
Bulimia nervosa ( Eating Disorders) Mental Health Nursing.Bulimia nervosa ( Eating Disorders) Mental Health Nursing.
Bulimia nervosa ( Eating Disorders) Mental Health Nursing.
 
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdfSGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
SGK RỐI LOẠN KALI MÁU CỰC KỲ QUAN TRỌNG.pdf
 
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
Trustworthiness of AI based predictions Aachen 2024
 
CPR.nursingoutlook.pdf , Bsc nursing student
CPR.nursingoutlook.pdf , Bsc nursing studentCPR.nursingoutlook.pdf , Bsc nursing student
CPR.nursingoutlook.pdf , Bsc nursing student
 
Basic structure of hair and hair growth cycle.pptx
Basic structure of hair and hair growth cycle.pptxBasic structure of hair and hair growth cycle.pptx
Basic structure of hair and hair growth cycle.pptx
 
PAIN/CLASSIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PAIN.pdf
PAIN/CLASSIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PAIN.pdfPAIN/CLASSIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PAIN.pdf
PAIN/CLASSIFICATION AND MANAGEMENT OF PAIN.pdf
 
Immune labs basics part 1 acute phase reactants ESR, CRP Ahmed Yehia Ismaeel,...
Immune labs basics part 1 acute phase reactants ESR, CRP Ahmed Yehia Ismaeel,...Immune labs basics part 1 acute phase reactants ESR, CRP Ahmed Yehia Ismaeel,...
Immune labs basics part 1 acute phase reactants ESR, CRP Ahmed Yehia Ismaeel,...
 
SGK LEUKEMIA KINH DÒNG BẠCH CÂU HẠT HAY.pdf
SGK LEUKEMIA KINH DÒNG BẠCH CÂU HẠT HAY.pdfSGK LEUKEMIA KINH DÒNG BẠCH CÂU HẠT HAY.pdf
SGK LEUKEMIA KINH DÒNG BẠCH CÂU HẠT HAY.pdf
 
How to cure cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis naturally
How to cure cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis naturallyHow to cure cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis naturally
How to cure cirrhosis and chronic hepatitis naturally
 
American College of physicians ACP high value care recommendations in rheumat...
American College of physicians ACP high value care recommendations in rheumat...American College of physicians ACP high value care recommendations in rheumat...
American College of physicians ACP high value care recommendations in rheumat...
 
ANATOMICAL FAETURES OF BONES FOR NURSING STUDENTS .pptx
ANATOMICAL FAETURES OF BONES  FOR NURSING STUDENTS .pptxANATOMICAL FAETURES OF BONES  FOR NURSING STUDENTS .pptx
ANATOMICAL FAETURES OF BONES FOR NURSING STUDENTS .pptx
 
BENIGN BREAST DISEASE
BENIGN BREAST DISEASE BENIGN BREAST DISEASE
BENIGN BREAST DISEASE
 

11.factors associated with pesticide risk behaviors among rice farmers in rural community, thailand

  • 1. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol 2, No.2, 2012 Factors Associated with Pesticide Risk Behaviors among Rice Farmers in Rural Community, Thailand Buppha Raksanam1,2* Surasak Taneepanichskul2 Wattasit Siriwong2 Mark G. Robson3,4 1. Sirindhorn College of Public Health, Trang, P.T.J. Trang, 92000, Thailand 2. College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand 3. School of Environmental and Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, NJ, 08901 8525, USA 4. School of Public Health, University of Medicine and Dentistry of NJ, 08901 8525, USA * E-mail of the corresponding author: sorayanarak@hotmail.com Abstract The need to use large amounts of pesticides has raised environmental health and human health concerns. Several reports reveal that many farmers in Thailand continue to be poisoned through unsafe practices in the use of pesticides. Few studies exist that examine pesticide risk behaviors and beliefs among rice farmers in Thailand. The study objective was to evaluate health beliefs and behaviors associated with pesticide risk behaviors among rice farmers in the Khlong Seven community from March to December 2010. Data collection from 482 rice farmers was completed by observation, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions. We found the main potential exposure pathways included: take-home exposure; ingestion from food intake, especially vegetables and drinking water; environment risks, especially the proximity of family homes to farms, spray drift areas, and; the most concern stemmed from their practice. Major factors of pesticide poisoning in the Khlong Seven community were the unsafe use of pesticides including erroneous beliefs of farmers about pesticide toxicity, lack of attention to safety precautions, environmental hazards, and information about first aid and antidotes written on the container labels, the use of faulty spraying equipment or lack of proper maintenance of spraying equipment, and wearing protective gear and appropriate clothing during the handling of pesticides. This study concludes that an intervention program is necessary to improve safer pesticide behaviors and to decrease pesticide exposure among rice farmers in Khlong Seven community. Keywords: rice farmers, pesticide exposure, risk behaviors, rural community 1. Introduction Pesticides are widely used throughout the world to protect or promote industrial agricultural products (WHO 1990; Ecobichon 2001). Pesticide exposure is one of the most important occupational risks among farmers in Thailand (Ecobichon 2001). Short term exposure can cause irritation of the skin, eyes, nose, impaired of lung functions, vision, memory, liver, kidneys and stomach discomfort. Both short and long term exposure can affect the nervous system (Alavanja et al. 2004; Blondell et al. 2007; Calvert 2008; Keifer et al. 2007; MOPH 2009; Klein-Schwartz et al. 1997; Weisenburger et al. 1992; Winchester et al. 1993; Robson et al. 2001). The need to use large amounts of pesticides has raised human health and environmental concerns (Hemmi & Cool 1995). The total amount of imported pesticides had dramatically increased in Thailand. The trend of reported cases of pesticide poisonings from 2005 to 2008 had dramatically increased. The amount of cases harmed from the pesticide poisoning in 2008 was 1,705 cases (MOPH 2009). Khlong Seven community, Khlong Luang district, Pathumthani province is located at the middle part of Thailand, where is located in the low alluvial flats of the Chao Phraya river. Siriwong et al. (2008) found ecological risk and contamination of human food sources from Organochlorines in this area. Few studies exist that examine environmental risk behaviors related to pesticide use among rice farmers. We applied the principles of the Health Belief Model and environmental health behavioral assessment methodology to 32
  • 2. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol 2, No.2, 2012 evaluate health beliefs and behaviors associated with pesticide exposure among rice farmers in Khlong Seven community. This enabled us to learn about the contexts of susceptibility, and perceived risks related to pesticide use among rice farmers. The principle of the Health Belief Model is based on six key concepts (Becker et al. 1978; Glanz et al. 2002). (1) The perceived susceptibility is an individual's assessment of their risk from occupational pesticide hazards. (2) The perceived severity is an individual's assessment of the seriousness of the occupational or pesticide hazards, and its potential consequences. (3) The perceived barrier of pesticide safety is an individual's assessment of the influences that facilitate or discourage adoption of the promoted occupational pesticide safety behaviors. (4) The perceived benefit is an individual's assessment of the positive consequences of adopting occupational pesticide safety behaviors. (5) The cues to action are events, either physical symptoms of a health condition or environmental incidents from pesticide use that stimulate farmers to take action/adopt protective measures. (6) Self-efficacy is the farmer’s belief in being able to effectively and successfully carry out the protective measures necessary to achieve the desired results (Becker et al. 1978; Glanz et al. 2002). The present study, we focused on perceived susceptibility of pesticide hazards, severity of a pesticide hazards, benefits of pesticide safety, barriers to improving pesticide safety, and knowledge of improving pesticide safety. The study objectives were to evaluate health beliefs and behaviors associated with pesticide exposure among the Khlong Seven rice farmers from March to December 2010. 2. Materials and methods The study research procedure was separated to two phases: (1) a preparatory phase (building connection; community study; participant recruitment; research assistant training; pilot project) and; (2) a cross- sectional study phase (face to face in-depth interviews, focus group discussion). Data collection from 482 rice farmers was completed by using a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. Eligibility criteria for rice farmer participants included aged 21-60 years. The research instruments were health beliefs on pesticide use questionnaire, pesticide use behavior questionnaire, focus group discussion guideline, and observation guideline. The health beliefs on pesticide use questionnaire was divided into 4 sections, including perception toward the susceptibility, severity, benefits of taking action and barriers to take action in using pesticides. This part consisted of 22 questions. The questions were both positive and negative. Each question was scored on a five-point Likert’s scale, ranging from strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly disagree. The pesticide use behavior’s questionnaire was divided into 2 sections. Specifically, self-care practice in personal health and questions concerning self-care practices when using personal protection equipment (comprised 20 questions). These questions included personal health care behavior questions such as cleaning their hands immediately after using pesticides; taking a bath and changing their clothes immediately after spraying; smoking and using pesticide at the same time; wash their shirt and pants immediately after finishing spraying; separate their shirt and pants stained with pesticides from their family’s clothes; stand over downwind while they are spraying pesticides and; don't drink or have meal while they are crop-dusting pesticide. The questions regarding the use of personal protective equipments included wearing plastic gloves when they mix or touch the pesticides; wearing a long shirt and button both at the sleeves and neck; wear long trousers while they are spraying pesticides; wearing rubber gloves while they are spraying pesticide; wearing a mask while they are spraying pesticides; wearing a bonnet or hat while spraying pesticides and wearing boots while spraying pesticides. The farmers had to choose one answer from each question on a four-point, Likert’s scale which included always done, often done, sometimes done, and never done. All the questions had the meaning as follows: Always done meant farmers perform the dangerous protection activities from pesticides every time when they work with pesticides; Often done meant farmers almost perform the dangerous protection activities from pesticides when they works with pesticides or the time of doing activities are between 5-9 times from 10 times of using pesticides; Sometimes done meant farmers sometimes perform the dangerous protection activities from pesticides when their work related pesticides or the time amount of doing activity is not over 4 from 10 times of for using pesticides; Never done meant farmers never perform the dangerous protection activities from pesticides when they work with pesticides. 33
  • 3. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol 2, No.2, 2012 The topics in focus group discussion guideline, and observation guideline were addressed: (1) pesticide use in the Khlong Seven community; (2) environmental health risks regarding pesticide exposure and; (3) recommendations for establishing a rice farmer guideline for improving pesticide safety in Khlong Seven community. The interviews and focus group discussions were performed by research team who were trained in interviewing techniques and briefed on the interview and discussion topics. Semi-structured, and unstructured, open-ended interviews were performed in the farmer participants’ own homes and their work sites. Unstructured interviews, informal discussions were used to gain rapport with the participants. In semi-structured interviewing, an interview guide of questions was used. Questions focused on knowledge of pesticides, beliefs regarding health risks associated with pesticide exposure, safety practices in the work site, safety practices at home, and beliefs in work-related conditions that contribute to pesticide exposure. The exploratory research questions presented as follows: What belief systems influence the farmers’ perceived risk of pesticide exposure? What are farmer’s perceptions regarding the severity, susceptibility, barriers and benefits of pesticide exposure? What observed work-related and socio-cultural factors modify pesticide exposure risks? What are the needs of farmers to improve pesticide safety in the Khlong Seven community? All interviews lasted between 1 and 2 hours, the average been 1.5 hours. Focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were done in a private and quiet place such as a primary health care unit and the Khlong Seven community leader’s office. Observational data was collected by working alongside farmers in their rice farms and in their homes in the Khlong Seven community, Pathumthani, Thailand. The study protocol was approved according to Chulalongkorn University Ethics Committee review guidelines for the protection of human subjects (under the study protocol No.041.2/53) Consent forms were obtained before the data collection commenced. 3. Data Analysis Quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics. Frequencies and percentages were used for demographic and occupational data. Mean and Standard deviation were used for scoring beliefs and behaviors related to pesticide exposure. Multiple regression analysis was used for evaluating the predictors associated with pesticide risk behaviors. Data from the questionnaire were analyzed using the SPSS computer software. Qualitative data was analyzed using content analysis. Data were analyzed by systematically organizing and interpreting information using categories, themes and motifs that identify patterns and relationships. We identified patterns relationships on which to base an analysis of the findings. 4. Results A majority of the farmer participants (54.36 %) were male. The average age of the individuals was 46.53 years and 41.08 % were between from 41 to 50 years old. Most of them (58.78%) were married. Most were primary school educated (45.44%). Most of them (90%) stated that they were involved in pesticide spraying during their work sites, more than half of been working with having worked with pesticides for over 10 years. Most of them (51.42%) rented the farms where they worked. Some of them owned the land for farming, and the others rented for working. Most of them had been involved in agricultural labor for 30.53 years). The average level of health belief and behavior regarding pesticide exposure was 3.98 and 2.78 respectively (Figure1 and Figure 2). Farmer participants had moderate level of belief on the benefits of pesticide safety and the protective barriers for improving pesticide safety. Receiving information about pesticide hazards increased perceived susceptibility and severity to pesticide risk behaviors and increased the benefits of safer pesticide behaviors. However, their risk behaviors, especially related to the use of improper personal protective equipments, were at a remarkably high level. Where, a high perceived severity of pesticide hazards was also correspondingly high (p<0.05) (Table 2). The main potential pathways regarding pesticide exposures among farmers in the Khlong Seven community included: (1) take-home pesticides resulting from pesticide residues on clothing, skin, and boots that accumulated as farmers were working in fields; (2) ingestion from food intake that might contain pesticide residues in foods such as fruit, vegetables or drinking water; (3) environment causes, especially if the 34
  • 4. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol 2, No.2, 2012 family home was close to the farms caused by pesticide spray or spray drift; (4) a major concern was the farmers’ unsafe methods of mixing, loading and applying the pesticides. Major factors of environmental health risk behaviors related to pesticide exposure in the Khlong Seven community caused from the misuse of pesticides including erroneous beliefs of farmers about pesticide toxicity, lack of attention to safety precautions, environmental hazards, and information about first aid and antidotes given by the label, the use of faulty spraying equipment or lack of proper maintenance of spraying equipment, and protective gear and appropriate clothing during handling of pesticides. More than half of the farmer participants applied higher than recommended concentrations and did not pay any or very little attention to labels on the chemicals and protective clothing instructions. The farmers breathed air containing pesticides as a vapor or aerosol during spraying. They sprayed with another person working close by and would be carried by the wind. Drinking water was often left on their work They directly handled pesticides with their hands. The pesticides were also exposed to their eyes because of improper personal protection such as visors or splash proof goggles. They poured pesticide directly into a spray tank without rubber gloves. Another problem was they often stored the pesticide equipment in their houses, not in a locked storage area. This storage was often close to other household activities and where the children were able to access the storage area. The major sources of waste chemicals and solid wastes were through contamination including defective and expired bottles and pesticide’s containers. The waste chemical drums and different contaminated solid waste were not placed on impervious floors. This had the potential to cause contamination of soil, groundwater, cannels, and reservoirs from the leakage and spillage. In most cases, the farmers disposed the empty pesticide containers within the farm (89.94%) by selling, leaving it in the field, or reutilization for other purposes (e.g., for food and water storage). On some farms, the empty containers were taken to the local waste containers or to a pesticide container disposal facility. Acute pesticide poisoning symptoms mostly found in the Khlong Seven community included nausea, vomiting, dizziness, skin irritation, skin rash, nasal irritation, weakness and eye irritation, headache, fainting and fatigue. Some farmers reported, “I think there is much more awareness of pesticides now than there had been over 30 years ago”. They agreed that pesticides helped protect crops but resulted in ill effects for farmers. Although, many farmers knew that regulations existed to protect them from pesticide exposure more than 80% said there was little to no enforcement of the regulations. Regarding protective clothing, the response by one farmer exemplified the view expressed by many other farmers: “personal protective equipments, which were supposed to be worn in some job capacities were hot and uncomfortable and were rarely provided”. Most of the farmers reported using pesticide products containing the organophosphate pesticide as active ingredient, the most popular brand name in the Khlong Seven community was “Abamectin”. The next most frequently used active ingredient was carbamate. Among the herbicides, glyphosate was most frequently mentioned. Most of the farmers reported working 8–10 hours a day during the growing season, with pesticide application occurring for 3–8 days each month. Almost all farmers (66.67%) had an area outside the farmhouse for storage of the pesticide products, while the rest reported storing these products inside their houses. 5. Discussion The primary influence that impeded farmers’ using personal protective equipment was financial. Additionally, farmers did not wear personal protective equipment because it interfered with their work. For example, although gloves, boots, protective lenses, and hats are available at local stores, economic barriers may preclude the farmers from purchasing them. In the focus groups discussions, farmers expressed frustration with not being provided personal protective equipments, and some felt that employers should be required to provide this to all farmers, not just those who handle pesticides. Despite the fact that the great majority of the farmer participants in this study had a clear perception that pesticides could harm their health, the use of personal protective equipments during pesticide application was not a common practice in this community. Farmers with little formal education might be at higher risk when using pesticides due to difficulties in understanding the instructions and safety procedures included on the product labels. Although trained health care personnel can provide instructions and safety procedures, this information is not 35
  • 5. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol 2, No.2, 2012 necessarily understood by the farmers and/or incorporated into their daily agricultural practices. Similarly to this study, Isin & Yildirim (2007) have reported that although, farmers read the recommendations and instructions on pesticide’s label, less than 60% of them exactly followed the directions. Some of them prefer to use unsuitable pesticides in order to ensure the yield and quality of fruits. Several factors might account for this apparent reckless attitude regarding self-protection by the farmers. In addition, using the questionnaires to measure the risk behaviors regarding to the use of pesticides might not accurately reflect the actual behaviors of the participants. The successful implementation and program sustainability of pesticide safety relies on maintaining crop yield and increasing farmer earnings. Clearly, there is need for educational intervention efforts to stress the health impacts and environmental issues from pesticide use in this study area. Greater enforcement of regulations regarding field and housing sanitation are needed as well as to enhance the level of substantive dialogue with government policy makers. 6. Conclusions Although the rice farmers in Khlong Seven community recognize the potential harm of pesticides to human health and the environment, transforming this knowledge into practical actions that result in lower levels of exposure might prove a complex task. We elucidated farmers’ pesticide relevant beliefs regarding perceived severity and susceptibility to pesticides especially pesticides, the need to support safety second to financial considerations. In addition, governmental actions, such as interdiction or restrictions on the use of pesticides and enforcement of good agricultural practices, including the use of safety equipment, are needed to decrease the pesticide exposure of the farmers. Recommendation guidelines to improve pesticide safety focused on environmental health safety associated with pesticide exposure, pesticides safe handling and use, pesticides poisoning and management. These findings call for interventions that involve and engage multiple stakeholders aimed at increasing the adoption of pesticide safety behaviors and reducing pesticide exposure in farmers. 7. Acknowledgements This research was financially supported by Thai Fogarty ITREOH Center (Grant NO. D43TW007849 NIH FIC and NIEHS P30ES005022), the College of Public Health Sciences, Chulalongkorn University, Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University and the Office of the Civil Service Commission, Thailand. 8. References Alavanja, M., Hoppin, J., & Kamel, F. (2004). Health effects of chronic pesticide exposure: cancer and neurotoxicity. Annu Rev Public Health, 25, 155–197. Becker, M.H., Radius S.M., & Rosenstock, I.M. (1978). Compliance with a medical regimen for asthma: a test of the health belief model, Public Health Reports, 93, 268-677. Blondell, J.M. (2007). Decline in pesticide poisonings in the United States from 1995 to 2004. Clin Toxicol, 45, 589–892. Bureau of Epidemiology. Department of Disease Control. Ministry of Public Health (MOPH). Surveillance data. [online] Available: http://epid.moph.go.th. (July 19, 2009). Calvert, G.M., Karnik, J., Mehler, L., Beckman. J., Morrissey, B., Sievert, J., Barrett, R., Lackovic, M., Mabee, L., Schwartz, A., Mitchell, Y., & Moraga-McHaley, S. (2008). Acute pesticide poisoning among agricultural workers in the United States, 1998–2005. Am J Ind Med, 5, 883–898. Ecobichon, D.J. (2001). Pesticide use in developing countries. Toxicology, 160, 27–33. Glanz, K., Rimer, B.K., & Lewis F.M., (2002). Health Behavior and Health Education. Theory, Research and Practice. San Francisco: Wiley & Sons. Hemmi, K., & Cool, J.C. (1995). Educating New Environmental Leadership for Asia. Arlington, VA: 36
  • 6. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol 2, No.2, 2012 Winrock International Institute for Agricultural Development. Isin, S., & Yildirim, I. (2007). Fruit-growers’ Perceptions on the Harmful Effects of Pesticides and their Reflection Practices: The Case of Kemalpasa, Turkey. Crop Protection, 26, 917-922. Keifer, M.C., & Firestone, J. (2007). Neurotoxicity of pesticides. J Agromed, 12, 17–25. Klein-Schwartz, W., & Smith, G. (1997). Agricultural and horticultural chemical poisonings: mortality and morbidity in the United States. Ann Emerg Med, 29, 232–38. Mburu, F., & Ties Boerma, J. (1989). Community-based health care 10 years post Alma Ata. Sci. Med, 28, 1005-1006. Robson, M., Hamilton, G., & Brachman, G. (2001). Case study on chronic organophosphate poisoning. New Solut, 11, 243–249. Siriwong. W., Thirakhupt, K., Sitticharoenchai, D., Rohitrattana, J., Thongkongowm, P., Borjan, M., & Robson, M. (2008). A preliminary human health risk assessment of organochlorine pesticide residues associated with aquatic organisms from the Rangsit Agricultural Area, Central Thailand. Human Ecol Risk Assess, 4, 1086–897. Weisenburger, D.D. (1993). Human health effects of agrichemical use. Human Pathology, 24(12), 1383-6. WHO, UNEP. (1990). Public health impact of pesticides used in agriculture, Geneva: WHO. Winchester, P.d., Huskins, J., &Ying, J. (1992). Agrichemicals in surface water and birth defects in the United States. Acta paediatrica, 98, 664–9. Buppha Raksanam is Academic Lecturer in Public Health Program (Community Health, Technician Pharmacy, Dental Public Health) At Sirindhon College of Public Health Trang, Thailand. Buppha received Bachelor degree of Pharmacy from Khonkean University, Thailand and Master degree of Pharmacy from Prince of Songkha University, Thailand. Surasak Taneepanichskul is the Dean of the College of Public Health Sciences (CPHS), Chulalongkorn University. Thailand. He received a M.D. form Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Diploma clinical science (OB & GYN) from Chulalongkorn University, Master of Medicine (Public Health) from National University of Singapore, and Bachelor of Law from Sukhothai Thammathirat Open University, Thailand. Wattasit Siriwong is a faculty member, Assistant Dean, and an executive board member of the College of Public Health Sciences (CPHS), Chulalongkorn University. Thailand. He received a Bachelor of Science in Biotechnology from Mahidol University, Master of Science degree in Environmental Science from Thammasat University and his Doctoral degree in Environmental Management from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. Dr. Wattasit is an active researcher in the field of environmental health. He is also a member of the editorial board of International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health and Journal of Health Research. Mark Gregory Robson Mark Gregory Robson is the Dean of Agricultural and Urban Programs and Professor of Entomology at Rutgers University-School of Environmental and Biological Sciences and Professor of Environmental and Occupational Health the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey (UMDNJ) School of Public Health (SPH). He graduated with a B.S. with High Honors (1977) M.S. (1979) and Ph.D. 37
  • 7. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol 2, No.2, 2012 (1988) from Rutgers University and M.P.H. (1995) from UMDNJ SPH. Dr. Robson received an honorary doctoral degree in Public Health from Chulalongkorn University in 2010. Table 1. Demographic data Characteristics (n = 482) No (%) Gender Male 262 54.36 Female 177 45.64 Age (Years) ≤ 30 34 7.05 31-40 79 16.39 41-50 198 41.08 51-60 171 35.48 > 60 0 0.00 Mean + SD = 46.53 +11.19 Range = 21 – 60 Marital Status Single 112 23.24 Married 283 58.71 Widow 50 10.37 Divorced 37 7.68 Education Uneducated - 0.00 Primary school 219 45.44 Secondary 1school 208 43.15 Under Bachelor degree 48 9.96 Bachelor degree & higher 7 1.45 Income (Bath/Month) ≤ 3500 32 6.64 > 3,500 – 5,000 54 11.20 > 5,000 - 10,000 301 62.45 > 10,000-20,000 85 17.63 > 20,000 10 2.07 Mean +SD = 6988.35 +3511.10 baht Duration in agriculture occupation Mean + SD = 30.53 + 11.19 years Range = 1- 55 years 38
  • 8. Journal of Environment and Earth Science www.iiste.org ISSN 2224-3216 (Paper) ISSN 2225-0948 (Online) Vol 2, No.2, 2012 Characteristics (n = 482) No (%) Type of ownership Owner 148 30.71 Renter 248 51.45 Owner and renter 47 17.84 Table 2. Multiple regression analysis regarding to pesticide use behaviors and health beliefs Factors B SD Beta T Sig. Constant 1.89 .313 6.05 .000 Perceived severity to pesticide hazards .398 .024 .595 16.29 .001* Perceived susceptibility of pesticide hazards -.015 .049 -.011 -.307 .759 Perceived the protective barriers of improving pesticide safety -.165 .055 -.116 -2.98 .053 Perceived benefits of pesticide safety -.018 .054 -.013 -.338 .735 ** Relationships at statistical significant level 0.05 (Beliefs) 39
  • 9. International Journals Call for Paper The IISTE, a U.S. publisher, is currently hosting the academic journals listed below. The peer review process of the following journals usually takes LESS THAN 14 business days and IISTE usually publishes a qualified article within 30 days. Authors should send their full paper to the following email address. More information can be found in the IISTE website : www.iiste.org Business, Economics, Finance and Management PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL European Journal of Business and Management EJBM@iiste.org Research Journal of Finance and Accounting RJFA@iiste.org Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development JESD@iiste.org Information and Knowledge Management IKM@iiste.org Developing Country Studies DCS@iiste.org Industrial Engineering Letters IEL@iiste.org Physical Sciences, Mathematics and Chemistry PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL Journal of Natural Sciences Research JNSR@iiste.org Chemistry and Materials Research CMR@iiste.org Mathematical Theory and Modeling MTM@iiste.org Advances in Physics Theories and Applications APTA@iiste.org Chemical and Process Engineering Research CPER@iiste.org Engineering, Technology and Systems PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL Computer Engineering and Intelligent Systems CEIS@iiste.org Innovative Systems Design and Engineering ISDE@iiste.org Journal of Energy Technologies and Policy JETP@iiste.org Information and Knowledge Management IKM@iiste.org Control Theory and Informatics CTI@iiste.org Journal of Information Engineering and Applications JIEA@iiste.org Industrial Engineering Letters IEL@iiste.org Network and Complex Systems NCS@iiste.org Environment, Civil, Materials Sciences PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL Journal of Environment and Earth Science JEES@iiste.org Civil and Environmental Research CER@iiste.org Journal of Natural Sciences Research JNSR@iiste.org Civil and Environmental Research CER@iiste.org Life Science, Food and Medical Sciences PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL Journal of Natural Sciences Research JNSR@iiste.org Journal of Biology, Agriculture and Healthcare JBAH@iiste.org Food Science and Quality Management FSQM@iiste.org Chemistry and Materials Research CMR@iiste.org Education, and other Social Sciences PAPER SUBMISSION EMAIL Journal of Education and Practice JEP@iiste.org Journal of Law, Policy and Globalization JLPG@iiste.org Global knowledge sharing: New Media and Mass Communication NMMC@iiste.org EBSCO, Index Copernicus, Ulrich's Journal of Energy Technologies and Policy JETP@iiste.org Periodicals Directory, JournalTOCS, PKP Historical Research Letter HRL@iiste.org Open Archives Harvester, Bielefeld Academic Search Engine, Elektronische Public Policy and Administration Research PPAR@iiste.org Zeitschriftenbibliothek EZB, Open J-Gate, International Affairs and Global Strategy IAGS@iiste.org OCLC WorldCat, Universe Digtial Library , Research on Humanities and Social Sciences RHSS@iiste.org NewJour, Google Scholar. Developing Country Studies DCS@iiste.org IISTE is member of CrossRef. All journals Arts and Design Studies ADS@iiste.org have high IC Impact Factor Values (ICV).