CONTENTS
EDITORIAL
FEATURE BY NOBUO TANAKA,
Executive Director,
ALL ABOUT International Energy Agency
(IEA)
NUCLEAR FUEL
04 10 WE NEED AN ENERGY
REVOLUTION
VIEWPOINT
Europe: roadmap
Rising energy demand, declining natural resources, the threat of greenhouse gases… for a single energy market
I
Europe’s energy market is not unified… yet. A lot of standards
it’s not easy to achieve a balance, and yet these vital issues must be resolved. The n the new edition of Energy Technology Perspectives, 2008, the
and procedures differ from one country to the next and IEA focuses on ways to cut CO2 emissions in half by 2050.
nuclear revival in a number of countries may be the beginning of a solution. This is there are still not enough grid interconnections. How can
Improving energy efficiency is the first step and results in
these problems be overcome to create a true European
a good time to take a closer look at this industry and to learn more about the many immediate cost savings. The second step is to reduce emis-
energy market? Jean-Marie Chevalier, co-author of a report
sions from power generation. In fact, this is a sector that
on this issue for the French Economic and Social Council,
“lives” of nuclear fuel. would need to be completely “decarbonized”. Given the growing
shares his view.
demand for electricity, this would mean that 38 coal-fired plants and
20 gas-fired plants would have to be equipped with a carbon capture
and storage system (CSS) each year from 2010 to 2050. Beyond that,
we would have to build 26 nuclear power plants per year as well as
15
17,000 wind turbines. And in addition to all this, we would need to
✔ Cover
12
reduce the carbon intensity of the transportation sector eightfold.
Nuclear This last objective is most certainly the costliest and most complex,
fuel pellets,
due to very strong growth and limited potential for improvement,
Romans (France) PERSPECTIVES
(
( based mostly on existing technologies.
Energy and climate:
DECODING
V The investment required to bring about such change is gigantic.
Capturing and storing C02 Brussels plan put to the test
Based on current energy use, our preliminary assessment puts it at
alternatives It’s a promising way to fighting global In early 2008, the European Commission presented its
50 billion dollars. The costs for “decarbonization”, which would be
warming: recovering carbon dioxide gas produced by highly ambitious plan to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
2nd quarter 2008
50 dollars per metric ton of CO2 in the energy sector, would rise to
industry and burying it underground. The processes Two stumbling blocks stand in the way: industry’s obvious
Publication Manager: Michel-Hubert Jamard.
200 or even 500 dollars per ton to achieve real improvement in the
are technically complex… and still expensive.
Editors: Thierry Piérard, Virginie Lepetit. reluctance, and the unanswered but crucial question of
Photos: Taillat, Lesage, Geoffray, Pauquet/ transportation sector. On top of that, it would require aggressive
An in-depth analysis. how to fund the proposed measures.
AREVA (couv., p. 4, 6, 7, 9), OCDE/AIE (p. 3),
political action and technological breakthroughs on an unprece-
M. Bennett Kress & Associates (p. 9), 4 Vents (p. 9),
dented scale. This would trigger a new energy revolution that would
Franck Beloncle (p. 10), StatoilHydro (p. 14),
D. Gys/Réa (p. 15), C. Van Der Eecken/Réa (p. 16), radically transform the way we produce and use energy. ■
19
18
IN BRIEF KIOSK A selection of books and
Caccuri/Contrasto-Réa (p. 16), Studio Pons/
Photononstop (p. 17), CERN (p. 18), J. Rezac/Réa (p. 20). Research, environment, transportation: websites for more information on
Illustrations: Mr Suprême (p. 11), A. Dagan (p. 12).
energy news clippings from Alternatives. the topics discussed in this issue.
: 7951
Design and production:
www.areva.com
The opinions expressed by the authors of articles in this magazine are
their sole responsibility and do not necessarily reflect AREVA’s opinions.
ISSN 1637-2603
In accordance with the French law of January 6, 1978 on Data
Processing and Civil Liberties, as amended by the law of August 6, 2004,
AT A GLANCE
any person has the right to request the correction or deletion of his or her
60% 2012 2.3 MW
personal data. This right may be exercised by letter posted to T.M.S.
Paper (novatech gloss) certified from mixed FSC and elemental chlorine-
This is how much Italy depends on natural gas for its electric power generation. By this date, the energy efficiency of real estate offered for This is the generating capacity of the first floating wind turbine, to be
free pulp, ISO 9706, ISO 9001 and ISO 14001, as per EC directive
sale in classified advertisements must be disclosed in France. built next year off the coast of Norway by the Norwegian oil company
98/638 on heavy metals content and EEC standard 89/109 regarding In May, Italian Minister of Economic Development Claudio Scajola announced that his country
contact with food. Environmentally friendly ink (100% plant-based).
StatoilHydro. Offshore wind turbines already exist in many places around the
will build new-generation nuclear power plants to increase its energy independence and Buildings are the biggest consumers of energy in France. They
© 2008 AREVACOM
“produce energy on a large scale safely, economically and in an environmentally-friendly represent 42.5% of total energy consumption and generate globe, but they are all anchored to the ocean floor. Floating wind turbines can
Energy is our future, manner.” Back in 1987, the country had renounced nuclear power in a referendum. 23% of the country’s CO2 emissions. be moved easily to deeper waters, where the wind is often stronger.
don’t waste it!

FEATURE An overview of challenges tied to energy
The demand for energy continues to rise while natural resources are depleted
day after day and the planet chokes on greenhouse gas emissions. It’s not
easy to strike a balance, yet these issues must be resolved. The nuclear
revival in a number of countries may be the beginning of a solution. This is
a good time to take a closer look at this industry and learn about the different
“lives” of nuclear fuel.
W
orld demand for tion operations are performed to convert
Three countries control 60% of
energy is set to the natural uranium into uranium oxide
the world’s uranium production
increase under the (U3O8). The ore is crushed and dissolved in
MAIN URANIUM PRODUCING COUNTRIES
combined pres- sulfuric acid, producing a yellow powder
ALL ABOUT
(production in metric tons)
sures of population called yellow cake or uranium concentrate,
growth, economic which is about 80% uranium. Ranking Country Production %
development and Yellow cake still contains a variety of impu- 1 Canada 9,481 23%
more widespread access to energy. Nu- rities and cannot be used in that form. It is 2 Australia 8,611 21%
clear power is one of the solutions that therefore purified during processing to 3 Kazakhstan 6,637 16%
NUCLEAR FUEL
can help meet our needs without convert the uranium into uranium hexaflu- 4 Russia 3,413 8%
greenhouse gas emissions. More often oride (UF6). 5 Niger 3,155 8%
than not, nuclear energy is discussed 6 Namibia 2,881 7%
7 Uzbekistan 2,300 5%
only in terms of nuclear reactors or New deposits to be mined
8 United States 1,800 4%
waste, but these are just two links in a According to the Nuclear Energy Agency
9 China 950 2%
long chain. Nuclear power is organized (NEA), annual world demand for uranium
10 Ukraine 900 2%
around the two main phases of the fuel came to 67,320 metric tons as of January 1,
Total Top 10 40,128 95%
cycle, the front end and the back end, 2005. World supply, at a little less than two
which occur before and after power is thirds of consumption, is inadequate. New Other 1,572 4%
generated in the reactor. deposits will have to be brought into produc- Word production 41,700 100%
tion to replace depleted inventories and meet
1. Uranium mining Source: AREVA 2007.
growing demand.
and conversion Resources are classified based on the likeli-
Uranium can be extracted from open pit or hood of recovery. Already identified re- at the current rate of consumption. In addi-
underground mines. In most instances, the sources are classified as “reasonably as- tion, the OECD and the IAEA distinguish
rock contains very little ore. The concen- sured” or “inferred”. These are deposits that conventional resources that have not yet
tration of natural uranium in the ore is in have been discovered, characterized and been discovered (“prognosticated” and/or
the range of 0.2% to 2%. It can be as high properly evaluated. They were estimated at “speculative” resources), estimated at
as 14% in a few exceptionally high-grade around 15 million metric tons as of January 10 million tons.
mines in Canada. A number of concentra- 1, 2005, or more than 200 years of supply The level of reserves depends on the price
one is willing to pay to recover them. More
deposits can be economically mined now
91 new reactors that the price of uranium has risen signifi-
cantly, going from 19 dollars per kilogram at
planned or under construction
the end of 2001 to almost 300 dollars per kilo-
As of the end of 2006, 438 reactors were connect- gram at the end of 2007, a fifteen-fold in-
(PWR). The water in the primary cooling system,
ed to the grid in 31 countries, representing 371 GW which comes into contact with the fuel cladding, is crease.
in installed capacity. Another 29 reactors were under kept under pressure to prevent boiling. The recovered
construction as of that same date, and 62 reactors heat is transferred to a secondary cooling system,
Evenly distributed reserves
had been ordered or were planned. The world market which produces steam. The steam powers a turbine,
Unlike oil and gas, which are unevenly
is dominated by light water reactors (LWR). There are which drives the turbo-generator that generates
distributed, with 70% of all oil reserves
✔ Yellow cake: the first product two major types of light water reactors: boiling electricity. The water from the secondary cooling
from uranium ore processing and 40% of all natural gas reserves located
water reactors (BWR) and pressurized water reactors system is condensed, cooled and recycled.
After crushing and grinding, uranium
in the Middle East, uranium reserves
ore undergoes a series of chemical
processes to increase the uranium
04 05
content to 80%. The resulting product
is called “yellow cake”.
/ ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

FEATURE
are relatively evenly distributed through- time, whereas the quantity of fission products
out the world, significantly reducing the increases. The fuel becomes less and less re-
geopolitical risk for operators of nuclear active until it finally stops producing energy.
power plants. The industrialized countries The used fuel must then be replaced with
of the OECD, the main users of nuclear fresh fuel.
power, possess about 40% of the world’s Used fuel treatment consists in separating re-
uranium reserves. The bulk of the reserves cyclable uranium and plutonium from final
are located in Australia (23% of total waste, which is packaged for disposal. For
world reserves), Kazakhstan (18.5%), every 100 kilograms of used fuel, 95 kilograms
Canada (9.5%), South Africa (8.6%), the of uranium and 1 kilogram of plutonium are
United States (7.5%), Russia (5.8%), recovered through treatment. The rest consists
Namibia (5.6%) and Niger (5%). of fission products and minor actinides, both
of which are final waste and will be vitrified.
2. Uranium enrichment Some of the uranium recovered from used 2 3
and fuel fabrication fuel treatment is recycled into fresh fuel; the
1
Natural uranium is a mixture of two iso- rest is stored. Plutonium is used to fabricate
topes, or atoms: U238 and U235, in the pro- another type of fuel called MOX, a mixture of
4
Nuclear fuel’s
portion of 99.3% and 0.7% respectively. uranium and plutonium oxides (see “Zoom”,
Only uranium 235 is easily susceptible to page 7). For countries that use this approach,
eight lives
the fission reaction that generates energy treatment and recycling increase energy inde-
in the core of a nuclear reactor. Light water pendence by using the energy potential of the
1. Uranium mining
reactors, representing 85% of all reactors recycled uranium and plutonium and con- Somair open pit mine (Niger)
worldwide, require uranium enriched in serving fresh uranium resources. These 2. Uranium conversion
UF4 to UF6 conversion plant, Tricastin (France)
U235 to operate. Enrichment is the process stages of the fuel cycle also reduce the vol-
3. Uranium enrichment by gaseous diffusion
used to raise the proportion of U235 from ume and radioactivity of the used fuel. With Georges Besse plant, Tricastin (France)
3 to 5%. demand rising faster than supply, the pres- 4. Fuel fabrication
Visual inspection of a fuel assembly, Romans (France)
sures on the uranium market are growing. Al-
5. Reactor loading
Continually evolving technologies though uranium prices have dropped in re- Civeaux nuclear power plant (France)
Two enrichment technologies are used today: cent months, this was preceded by four years 6. Used fuel treatment
Used fuel storage pool, La Hague plant (France)
gaseous diffusion and ultracentrifugation (see of continuous price increases. The price out- 7. MOX fuel fabrication
“word for word”, page 9). France has used the look is still on an upward trend. In light of Sorting pellets at the Melox plant (France)
8. Vitrification of final waste
gaseous diffusion process since 1978. This this situation, a number of major countries
Glass pouring in a radioactive waste
8
process consumes large amounts of electricity have begun to commit to fuel treatment and vitrification facility
7
and is being replaced by ultracentrifugation recycling, or are at least considering it.
technology, which consumes 50 times less. Pro-
5
duction is slated to begin in the first half of 2009
ZOOM
at AREVA’s Georges Besse II enrichment plant.
The unique cost structure
Enriched uranium is produced in gaseous
From plutonium to MOX
of nuclear power
form (UF6). It is then converted into a solid
Plutonium is an inevitable by-product
material (U02) and shaped into pellets, which
of nuclear reactions in a reactor fed with
Fossil fuel plants are very susceptible
are inserted into long metal tubes or “fuel would remain well below 10% of the total
low-enriched uranium. While it is responsible
to changes in the cost of fuel.
rods”. The fuel rods are bundled together and kilowatt-hour cost. Capital expenditures,
for most of the toxicity of used fuel, plutonium
Conversely, changes in uranium prices
held in place with spacer grids to form a fuel including dismantling expenses, repre- also contains a great deal of potential energy.
have little impact on the cost of nuclear
assembly. The assemblies are arranged side sent approximately 60% of the kilowatt- Mixed oxide fuel, or MOX, is a mixture of about
generated electricity. In fact, the price
by side inside the reactor vessel according to hour cost for nuclear power generation 93% depleted uranium powder and 7%
a predetermined, usually cylindrical configu- of fuel has little effect on the economic in light water reactors. Operating and plutonium oxide powder. In France, twenty
of the twenty-eight 900 MW reactors connected
ration. Together, these assemblies form the re- model for nuclear power. According to the maintenance expenses average about
to the grid operate with a fuel core that is 30%
actor core. Lappeenranta University of Technology 20% of the total and fuel cycle expenses
MOX. There are only two MOX fuel fabrication
in Finland, fuel represents about 7% of account for the remaining 20%. Of the lat-
plants in the world: AREVA’s Melox plant at the
3. Recycling the cost of nuclear power, versus 70% for ter, 90% of the expenses relate to the Marcoule site, and the Sellafield plant operated
6
The fuel assemblies release energy in the re- natural gas and 55% for coal. Even at front end of the fuel cycle and 10% to the by BNFL/BNG in Great Britain. A plant is also
actor through the fission of atomic nuclei. The 40 dollars per pound of uranium, fuel costs back end. scheduled to be built at the Rokkasho-Mura
proportion of fissile atoms decreases over site in Japan.
07
06 / ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

FEATURE
EXPERT OPINION
DR DOROTHY R. DAVIDSON
The French example, which has already
✔ Used fuel
Dr Dorothy R. Davidson 1, the nuclear fuel specialist, been transposed to Japan, where a plant al- shipping cask.
is in charge of relations with the US Department of
most identical to AREVA’s La Hague plant
Energy (DOE) as project manager of the International
was inaugurated in 2005, will be reproduced
Nuclear Recycling Alliance (INRA), which is conducting
in the coming years. In 2007, the United
studies on the closing of the fuel cycle in the
States and China each decided to build and
United States.
operate a recycling plant.
4. Waste management
WHAT IS THE FUTURE of the ✔ Andra’s low andcenter in Aube
medium level
waste disposal
The future of used fuel is a subject of ongoing
(France)
debate, with two opposing strategies. In one,
fuel cycle in the United States? The site receives all short-
used fuel is considered final waste. This lived low and medium level
waste. It will stop accepting
“once-through” or “open” fuel cycle option waste in around 2050.
has been chosen by countries such as Sweden,
Alternatives: What with a view to sustainable • The size of the recycling
Finland, Spain and Canada. In the other, used
characterizes the nuclear development. facilities will depend on the
ZOOM
fuel is treated to recover recyclable materials, in steel drums. When the radioactivity is retrievable disposal in deep geologic forma-
fuel cycle in the United demand for treatment of used
which make up 96% of the fuel. This is the higher, the waste is encapsulated in concrete tions as the baseline solution. A new law
What is INRA’s contribution
States? light water reactor fuel and
Measuring radiotoxicity
“closed” fuel cycle. France and other coun- or resins and isolated in concrete containers. should be adopted by 2015 at the latest to
to the GNEP program? sodium cooled reactor fuel.
Dorothy R. Davidson:
In France, approximately 1 kilogram of radioactive
tries, including Japan, the United Kingdom, define the conditions for retrievability.
D. R. Davidson: INRA is a • The industry has the capac-
Nuclear power currently gen-
waste is produced per person per year. Of this,
group of companies2 that ity to build sodium cooled Russia and China, treat their used fuel. A wealth of options While identifying deep geological disposal
erates 20% of the electricity in
990 grams will return to natural radioactivity levels
joined together to propose the reactors, but further R&D
the United States and the vast The United States had abandoned treat- Definitive solutions have already been im- as the preferred solution, the law of 2006
in less than 300 years, but 10 grams will remain
best nuclear technologies must demonstrate their
majority of the power plants ment 25 years ago, but is showing renewed plemented in France for very low level waste calls for an in-depth examination of the highly radiotoxic for a very long time. A French family
from the United States, France profitability compared with
should continue to operate interest now. and short-lived low or medium level waste. other two possible solutions. One involves of four people that uses nuclear-generated electricity
and Japan to the US govern- light water reactors.
for several decades more. We The classification of waste is fairly complex These types of waste are stored above the storage of the waste above or below for 25 years would have generated 12 cm3 of high
ment. We have almost 50 • International R&D programs
expect another 30 or so reac-
(see table). There are five categories of ground at two sites, one in the Aube Depart- ground, while in the other the waste’s ra- level, long-lived waste.
years of experience in manag- can be instrumental in
tors to be built. The nuclear
waste, based on radioactivity and half life. ment (Champagne-Ardenne region) and one dioactivity is reduced through separation
ing the commercial fuel cycle accelerating the development
industry is searching for the
Very low level waste (VLLW) and short-lived in the Manche Department (Normandy). and transmutation (see “word for word” be-
in accordance with IAEA3 of sodium cooled reactors.
best way to manage used fuel ISOTOPE:
word for word
low or medium level waste represent more The debate mainly concerns the long term low). From uranium ore mining to used fuel
and Euratom regulations. • It is desirable for the United
in the future, both in terms An element whose atoms have the same
than 90% of the waste produced in France management of long-lived, highly radioac- management and recycling, each step of the number of electrons and protons, but a
We also benefit from 40 years States to establish a regulatory
of economics and in terms of
different number of neutrons.
since the beginning of its nuclear program. tive, non-recyclable waste. This waste in- fuel cycle is a complete and complex indus-
of expertise in the design and agency to oversee the strategy
safety. This is why the Depart-
These categories include waste from ore pro- cludes the fuel cladding, untreated used fuel try unto itself. The entire cycle takes several
construction of light water for used fuel management.
ment of Energy asked industry
OPEN CYCLE/CLOSED CYCLE:
reactors and sodium cooled • A proven model for
to define the conditions for an cessing (metal scrap, rubble, etc.) and waste and fission products (see “Zoom”, opposite). decades from beginning to end. While other The fuel cycle is said to be “closed” when
reactors. This expertise forms privately funded fuel recycling
integrated fuel management from the maintenance and operation of nu- The French Law of June 28, 2006 indicates aspects of the nuclear industry are better it includes used fuel treatment and recycling
the basis of studies for the already exists and offers
strategy that would satisfy of fissile materials. It is said to be “open”
clear power plants. When the radioactivity of that the three avenues for research stipu- known, time is also one of the distinctive
design, funding and construc- appropriate guarantees. or “once-through” when the used fuel is sent
growing worldwide demand the short-lived low and medium level waste lated in the Waste Act of 1991 (the “Bataille features of this sustainable, reliable and
directly to disposal as waste.
tion scheduling of two major As a follow-up to this first
for energy safely and reliably CO2-free source of energy. ■
is low, the waste is compacted and packaged Law”) are complementary, but designates
facilities: the Consolidated phase, INRA will continue
while protecting the environ-
SEPARATION-TRANSMUTATION:
Fuel Treatment Center (CFTC) to assess the recycling busi-
ment. Today, the fuel cycle in The purpose of separation is to recover fission
and the Advanced Recycling ness model, improvements
the United States is character-
@
products and minor actinides. The latter are
Websites for more information
More than 90% of waste is very low level or short-lived
Reactor (ARR), a next-genera- to be made to the ARR, and
ized by on-site storage of used radioactive elements named after actinium,
on nuclear power:
tion reactor to convert long- the operating license process
fuel and geologic disposal of a heavy metal with relatively similar chemical
•International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA):
WASTE VOLUMES PRODUCED IN FRANCE SINCE THE BEGINNING OF THE NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAM IN 1974
www.iaea.org
lived waste into short-lived for the ARR and for a recy- properties. Transmutation occurs when the
final waste. This is why the
cling center. ■ heavy nuclei of minor actinides are bombarded
• National radioactive waste management agency
waste while generating power.
President initiated the Global
of France (Andra): www.andra.fr
Waste category Volume % % with neutrons and split, or fission, into lighter
Nuclear Energy Partnership • French Atomic Energy Commission (CEA):
of total volume of radioactivity nuclei.
Where does this program
(GNEP), whose goal is to www.cea.fr
stand today?
meet the growing demand for 108,219 m3
Very low level 11.1% -0 •www.laradioactivité.com: this site explains
˜ ULTRACENTRIFUGATION:
1. Dr. Davidson is also Vice President, radioactivity very simply, from its discovery
D. R. Davidson: With INRA,
energy, reduce future volumes Low and medium level In this process, a series of cylinders or
Nuclear Energy, AREVA, Inc.
to its numerous applications (Andra).
we have reached the following 2. AREVA, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd.
of used fuel and limit the risk “bowls” are lined up. They separate the
778,322 m3
– short-lived 79.6% 0.07%
(MHI), Japan Nuclear Fuel Limited (JNFL), • French Nuclear Energy Society (SFEN): uranium hexafluoride molecules by spinning
conclusions:
of proliferation. Another goal URS Washington Division, Babcock & Wilcox Low level www.sfen.org
Technical Services and Battelle Energy at very high speed. The heavier particles
• The recycling technology
of GNEP is to expand interna- 44,559 m3
– long-lived 4.5% 0.01% • World Nuclear Association:
Technology.
containing the U238 isotope are projected to
www.world-nuclear.org
allowing us to avoid separat- 3. International Atomic Energy Agency.
tional cooperation for the safe Medium level the walls of the cylinder. The lighter molecules
ing pure plutonium is mature A site opposed to the development
and peaceful use of nuclear 45,359 m3
– long-lived 4.6% 3.87% containing the U235 isotope remain near the
of nuclear power:
and available.
power around the world, center. The proportion of light, radioactive
High level
•Greenpeace: www.greenpeace.org molecules increases from one cylinder to the
1,639 m3
– long-lived 0.2% 96.05%
next, thus enriching the gas.
Source: Andra 2004.
09
08 / ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

VIEWPOINT
EUROPE: ROADMAP FOR A SINGLE ENERGY MARKET
Europe’s energy market is not unified… yet. Many standards and procedures differ tors. They should have the same
ZOOM
responsibilities and the same scope
from one country to the next, there still are not enough grid interconnections Electrical
of operations in every country.
interconnections
and some markets operate as if national monopolies were not a thing of the past, European associations such as the
These are grid connec-
particularly the gas market. We need a real Schengen area for energy. European Regulators’ Group for
tion points at the
Electricity and Gas (ERGEG), which
Here are some ideas on creating one. borders of two coun-
brings together European regula- tries, which determine
tors with European Transmission their capacity to trade
electricity. The physical
System Operators (ETSO), will be
capacity is provided by
very instrumental in achieving this. extra high voltage lines
The process is admittedly slower (EHV) and dedicated
W
e need a single and it is one of the priority than initially planned, but we equipment. European
auction systems in
European en- measures published in January should have a single electricity
place since 2004 regu-
ergy market, a 2007. From measure to decision, market in ten years or so. For gas, late the commercial
Schengen area however, it takes time for inter- it will undoubtedly take a bit side of operations.
longer. ■ France is linked to the
for electricity connections to come into being.
United Kingdom,
and gas that
Germany, the Benelux
Still very little competition
would allow Gaz et électricité, un défi pour l’Europe countries, Switzerland,
between national energy et la France [Gas and electricity, a challenge
competition to really play its Italy and Spain. At
for Europe and France], Jean-Marie Chevalier and
markets some of the borders,
role, stimulating innovation and Jacques Percebois, La Documentation française.
Pooled storage for example between
forcing suppliers to compete on The markets themselves are dys- nies EON and RWE are thinking Les grandes batailles de l’énergie
France and Spain, there
gaining ground [The great energy battles],
prices. But we are far from it; functional. European electricity of selling their transmission sys- is not enough physical
Jean-Marie Chevalier, Folio Gallimard.
the markets are still pretty much markets are extraordinarily com- Gas storage is still a problem. The tems. But we have to go further capacity. Reinforcing
these grid interconnec-
national. Electricity is well ahead plex, almost impenetrable, and a grid was designed by and for na- and faster. Ideally, we should cre-
tions is a project of
of gas on all of the key issues, powerful electric utility can still in- tional operators, and the storage ate a single European transmission
European interest.
including regulations, power fluence the market considerably. areas they control give them a size- system. A single transmission com- Some progress in that
systems and complex exchanges, Like the stock markets, there is a able competitive advantage that is pany would necessarily mean a direction should finally
@
THE OPINION OF • Une politique de l’énergie pour be made: French and
but there is still a critical lack need for greater oversight. beyond the reach of small compa- single regulatory authority and a l’Europe [An energy policy for
JEAN-MARIE CHEVALIER Spanish grid operators
Europe]
o f i n t e rc o n n e c t i o n s b e t we e n The issues are different for the nies. Pooled storage is catching on, single European market.
will be proposing a new
Measures recommended by
n a tional power grids. Grid in- changing gas industry. For the past though. I think that, like the elec- In every instance, the proliferation the European Commission, published route linking Perpignan
Jean-Marie Chevalier is a professor at on January 10, 2007:
terconnection is an essential fifty years, the European natural tric power industry, we will wind of national rules and regulations and Figueras before the
http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/fr/
the University of Paris-Dauphine, where end of June.
condition for establishing a truly gas network has been designed to up with completely independent is an impediment to the creation lvb/l27067.htm
he heads up the Center of Geopolitics continental market. The grids deliver gas directly from one fixed transmission system operators ca- of a single market. It is becoming • The third European legislative
of Energy and Raw Materials (CGEMP). package for the electricity and gas
become interdependent, allow- point – the deposit – to another pable of investing Europe-wide. urgent to harmonize the standards, markets, published on September 19,
He is also director of the Paris branch of ing electricity to flow freely from fixed point – the consumer. But These independent operators are procedures and regulations of 2007:
English version: http://europa.eu/
Cambridge Energy Research Associates one country to another. Prices today’s gas grid is changing, be- already emerging. Little by little, European countries and to increase scadplus/leg/fr/lvb/l27067.htm
(CERA) and the author of numerous can be arbitrated and competi- coming tighter and denser as it utilities like the German compa- the independence of grid opera-
articles and books. In October 2007, tion flourishes, as is the case matures. Liquefied natural gas
as part of the independent economic between France and the Benelux (LNG) is coming in from Norway,
“
advisory body CAE, he and co-author countries. Qatar and Egypt, and pipelines
Ideally, we should create a single European
Jacques Percebois submitted a report to More interconnections and even are being built from new gas-pro-
the French Prime Minister entitled Gaz
transmission system. A single transmission company
exc e s s c a p a c i t y a re u rg e n t l y ducing countries, increasing the
et électricité, un défi pour l’Europe et la needed for truly seamless inter- number of entry points. Slowly
would necessarily mean a single regulatory
France [Gas and electricity, a challenge change on the European scale. but surely, this trend will stimu-
The European authorities have late competition between natural
for Europe and France].
”
authority and a single European market.
clearly identified this as a goal, gas suppliers.
10 11
/ ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

V DECODING A guide exploring a natural phenomenon, a technology, a mechanism…
CAPTURING AND STORING CO2
A promising way to combat global warming is to capture CO2
produced by industry and bury it in deep geologic formations.
How C02is captured The processes are technically complex… and still expensive.
A closer look.
Before it can be captured, CO2 must be separated from other
components produced by industrial processes that burn oil, gas, coal
or biomass, such as nitrogen and sulfur. The CO2 is then piped down
vertically from the storage facility and injected at depths of at least
800 meters. There, it reaches a “supercritical” state in which it becomes
denser and less voluminous.
o combat the accumulation genic system at the outlet. This solution • Deep saline aquifers – These brackish
T
Sea transport
of CO2 in the atmosphere, is also expensive and consumes a lot of water-bearing layers represent the greatest
Like liquefied natural gas,
capturing it and storing it energy. It is best suited to new facili- volume potential for CO2 storage, with up
CO2 can be loaded onto a
methane carrier in liquid underground offers a prom- ties. to 10,000 billion metric tons available. That
form to reduce its volume,
ising alternative until non- • “Pre-combustion” capture involves convert- is equivalent to several centuries’ worth of
CO2 and transported by sea.
emitting energies become widespread. ing the fossil fuel before use into syngas, a global CO2 emissions. The aquifers are also
Large stationary sources (see chart below) mixture of carbon monoxide (CO) and very well distributed geographically. These
are targeted first. Full-scale experiments are hydrogen. The CO reacts with water in a two advantages make it easier to find an
under way to capture CO2 from these step called “shift conversion”, forming CO2 aquifer near an emission source. At the
sources at an acceptable cost using avail- and hydrogen, which are then separated. Sleipner natural gas production site in the
able technologies. The hydrogen can be used as a clean, non North Sea, the 4 to 10% CO2 contained in
CO2-emitting fuel to generate electricity or methane is extracted and re-injected more
Recovery technology heat. than 1,000 meters beneath the ocean floor.
still very expensive Once the CO2 has been captured, it can be Each year, a million metric tons are buried
CO2
Capturing CO2 at the source requires sepa- transported to storage sites either overland under the ocean floor in Norwegian waters
Industrial facilities
Methane
that capture CO2 rating it from the other components in high-pressure gas pipelines, or by sea in rather than being released to the atmos-
produced by industrial processes that burn methane carriers, just like liquefied natural phere. More study is needed to characterize
The CO2 is separated from other
combustion products in these
CO2
oil, gas coal or biomass, such as water gas (LNG), i.e. in moderately pressurized the long-term behavior of these aquifers.
facilities.
Oil or gas
vapor, nitrogen and sulfur. For the moment, liquid form, which reduces its volume. The
there appear to be three suitable technolo- United States has the largest land-based
gies for doing that. They are used primarily pipeline network, with some 50 million met-
in areas that are also conducting geologic ric tons of CO2 carried per year from
1,500 m
CO2 is produced in every sector
disposal experiments, including the United enhanced oil recovery operations or from
States, Japan and Europe. industrial plant emissions. Fewer than 3,000
CO2
• Post-combustion capture consists in kilometers of pipeline network are allocated
CO2
scrubbing flue gases, usually with amine to CO2 transport worldwide, a sign of how
Unexploited coal seams
solvents. It is easy to retrofit facilities inadequate the infrastructure is. Manufacturing
The CO2 replaces the methane that
Transportation 22%
is naturally present in the coal bed. with the technology, although it is really 23%
The methane can be extracted
Three types of underground
applicable only for large gas volumes at
and marketed by gas companies. Residential
reservoirs tested so far
low pressure and low CO2 concentrations. 10%
Power
Deep onshore or offshore It is the most mature solution, but results There are three main alternatives for deep generation Offices 4%
saline aquifers in an electric kilowatt-hour that costs 50 geological storage of CO2. In all three 39%
Agriculture 2%
These brackish water-bearing layers consti- to 70% more. cases, the CO2 is injected at depths of at
Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
tute the biggest reservoir, with 10,000 billion
• Oxyfuel capture consists of replacing least 800 meters. There, at temperatures Worldwide CO2 emission sources by type of activity
metric tons of storage capacity. They are also Injecting pressurized CO2 helps to dissolve remaining oil
the most evenly distributed geographically, the use of air for combustion with pure of more than 31° C and pressures greater
and reduce its viscosity. This facilitates the enhanced 61% of the C02 emissions from fossil fuel use come from large
making it easier to find one near the source recovery of oil or gas from nearly depleted reservoirs, oxygen. In this case, the concentration than 74 bar, it reaches a supercritical state stationary sources, such as power generation and manufacturing,
of emission. adding a potential economic advantage to the operation. where it is much easier to capture the C02.
of CO2 in the flue gases can be as high in which it becomes denser and less volu- Source: AIE, 2003.
The disadvantage of these reservoirs is their distance from
as 90%, facilitating capture by a cryo- minous.
CO2-emitting industrial sites.
13
12 / ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

(
V PERSPECTIVES
DECODING ( Insight into the energy outlook for the future
• Depleted or nearly depleted oil and
✔ The North Sea
Sleipner precursor site in
gas reservoirs – We already know a lot the
about these onshore and offshore geologi- The Sleipner project is the first
commercial example of CO2
cal environments. As natural reservoirs, sequestration in a deep saline
aquifer. The Sleipner field is
they have been proven to be leak-tight, as
located in the North Sea off the
long as all the wells leading to them are coast of Norway and is operated
by StatoilHydro, the country’s
sealed off. They are not ideally located, largest oil company.
being far from CO2-emitting industrial sites.
Using them requires investing heavily in
expensive infrastructure or other means to
bring in the CO2, such as pipelines or
methane carriers. Demand also outstrips
available volumes, estimated at about
✔ Brussels, January 23, 2008
930 billion metric tons.
Injecting pressurized CO2 for the enhanced Neelie Kroes, EU Competition commissioner, Andris
Piebalgs, Energy commissioner, José Manuel Barroso,
recovery of oil or gas does provide some European Commission president, and Stavros Dimas,
interesting possibilities, though. The Cana- boring a lot of injection wells, which would ground. Using information from the many Environment commissioner, unveil Europe’s energy
and climate plan.
dians are experimenting with it at the increase the risk of leaks, must be verified. naturally occurring CO2 deposits and les-
Weyburn oil field in Saskatchewan. CO2 from At an estimated 40 billion metric tons, the sons learned from pioneering storage sites,
a nearby U.S. coal gasification plant is global storage capacity of these seams is it is possible to establish rules for safe stor-
ENERGY AND CLIMATE:
injected under pressure into the oil layer, sorely inadequate. age over more than 1,000 years. The
where it dissolves in the oil, lowering its vis- There are two additional solutions. The first European Commission published a draft
cosity and making it easier to recover. After involves storing the CO2 in carbon “lakes” directive in January 2008 that will be
Brussels plan put to the test
treatment, the dissolved CO2 is separated and in the ocean at a minimum depth of 1,500 debated over the next few months in the
reinjected into the underground reservoir. meters, but this has been rejected due to European Council and Parliament. The
• Unexploited coal seams – These can be concerns about the impacts on the marine directive sets the conditions for CO2 stor-
used to take advantage of coal’s “affinity” ecosystem and how long the CO2 would be age licensing based on thorough site
for CO2 which, when injected, replaces the contained. The second solution, carbon characterization and assessment and on an
methane naturally present in the coal bed. sequestration by mineral carbonation, is of adequate monitoring program drawing on
T
he European Commission pre- So that the EU’s poorest countries are not
In early 2008, the European
Gas companies can then extract the more interest. Here, CO2 reacts with natu- geophysical, geochemical and biological sented an important series of penalized, the directives propose to distrib-
Commission presented
methane (the major component in natural rally occurring subsurface calcium and techniques. measures on energy and the cli- ute the effort among the 27 member states
its highly ambitious plan
gas), inject it into their pipeline networks, magnesium to become a carbonated rock Questions are already being raised about mate in late January. It even based on per-capita gross domestic product
and market it for industrial and domestic similar to limestone, which is insoluble and these underground storage reservoirs, des- described the plan as “historic”. (GDP). Thus, France must raise its share of
to reduce greenhouse gas
use. Since 2001, the European RECOPOL therefore perfectly stable over the long term. tined to become permanent, so the final test Included are measures to reduce energy con- renewable energies from 10.3% to 23% of the
emissions. Two stumbling
research project in Poland has been testing will no doubt be whether or not the public sumption, increase the total. Nathalie Kosciusko-
“
Capture is 70% accepts them. ■
the feasibility of injecting CO2 into coal share of renewable ener- Morizet, the French min-
blocks stand in the way:
of the overall cost France
seams in the Upper Silesian Basin. The pos- gies and boost energy effi- ister for the Environment,
industry’s obvious reluctance, ciency. But controversy
sibility of injecting large quantities of CO2 The entire CO2 capture, compression, trans- said at the end of January
must more than
and the unanswered but
into these low-permeability seams without port and sequestration process can cost up surrounds the proposed that “France is a special
double its share
FURTHER READING
to 42 euros (about 65 dollars) per metric plan. case because of its reliance
crucial question of how of renewable
ton of CO2. This exceeds the floor price of on nuclear power.” She
ZOOM to fund the proposed Nuclear power
30 euros (about 47 dollars) per MT of CO2 added: “France has
energy in total
• La capture et le stockage géologique du CO2
ignored in
currently negotiated on the cap and trade requested greater recogni-
measures.
[CO2 capture and geologic storage].
Europe hosting international
”
production.
the EU document
market. Capture technologies represent tion of the specific nature
Reducing greenhouse gas emissions – Geoscience series
projects (2005) – BRGM Publications (in French).
70% of the total in terms of cost, so they The main goal is to cut of its energy production and
• Capter et stocker le CO2 dans le sous-sol
constitute a considerable economic chal- greenhouse gas emissions by at least 20% consumption system.” Nuclear power is
Quite a few research projects on CO2 capture and
[Capturing and storing CO2 underground].
lenge. They are in the most need of
storage (CCS) have entered an active phase. by 2020, compared with 1990 levels. Brussels ignored in the EU document and is not con-
A technological solution for combating climate change.
One of these is CASTOR (CO2 from Capture to Storage), optimization from this viewpoint and are even promised a 30% cut if an international sidered a renewable source of energy. Hop-
Geoscience series (2007) – BRGM Publications (in French).
a European project that covers the entire CO2 capture- being tested in national and European proj- agreement is reached. Member states would ing to include nuclear power, France had
• Limiter les émissions de CO2 pour lutter
transport-storage chain and, by extension, looks
ects (see “Zoom”). contre le réchauffement climatique have to ensure that renewable energies rep- previously argued in vain in favor of quotas
into hydrogen storage. Another is CO2GeoNet, a [Reducing CO2 emissions to combat global warming].
The long-term safety of geological storage resent at least 20% of their energy consump- on energy with “low carbon emissions”.
Network of Excellence on Geological Storage of CO2 Series on prevention at the source and sequestration –
is a major criterion in deciding how much tion by 2020 (average for the 27 countries), In transportation, 10% of all fuel used in Euro-
that brings together the main European geological BRGM Publications – public document (in French)
and how densely CO2 can be stored under- compared with 8.5% in 2005 (see table page 17). pean vehicles must be biofuels such as
institutes (www.co2geonet.com).
15
14 / ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

(( PERSPECTIVES
to pay for previously free “rights to pollute”
Biofuels: an alternative that could be costly ✔ Chemical industry in the Netherlands
starting in 2013. The power generation sec-
in more than one way For José Manuel Barroso, the “cost of doing nothing”
tor, particularly coal-, gas- and oil-fired plants, would be higher than the cost of the recommended
Percentage of Share of agricultural
measures.
plant-based fuel land that would have which generate a large share of the CO2 emis-
used for ground to be allocated to biofuel
transportation
sions, will have to pay in full for these rights
production to replace 10%
(2004 data)
of oil-based products used
to pollute, to be sold at auction as of that
for ground transportation
date. The Commission stressed that this pay-
to-pollute system will “gradually” include
3%
21.6%
Brazil
other economic sectors, such as the aluminum
30%
1.6%
United States industry, ammonia production and air trans-
portation. Commission president Barroso
9%
1.3%
Worldwide
nonetheless indicated that Europe would “take
action” if an international agreement on the
72%
0.8%
EU 15
climate is not reached, particularly with the
Source: OCDE, quoted by Le Monde, March 13, 2008.
✔ Waiting for takeoff at the Paris airport
United States and emerging countries, to
Airlines will also be required to purchase
ethanol and biodiesel by 2020. Many reduce CO2 emissions. What this means in “rights to pollute”.
consider this an unrealistic target, with poten- practice is that the most “energy-greedy”
tially harmful consequences for the planet industries would be able to obtain permits
Renewable energies:
(see Alternatives no. 16). “For the first time to pollute “free of charge”, while importers The seven countries recalled the “fundamen-
country targets for 2020
in history, we propose to promote sustain- of competing non-European products would tal” importance of the “European Union’s
able biofuels,” said Energy commissioner have to pay for them. resolve” to establish rules on unfair compe- Country Share of renewable 2020 objective
energies in 2005
Andris Piebalgs. To be consistent with the tition, if necessary by way of a carbon tax
consumption
Seven member states
EU’s environmental goals, plant-based biofu- on imports from outside Europe. “We must
ask for clarification 39.8% 49%
Sweden
els will have to reduce greenhouse gas emis- be careful not to weaken the competiveness
34.9% 42%
Latvia
sions by 35% compared with gasoline or diesel “No member state considers its target to be of our companies and the employment of
28.5% 38%
Finland
fuel. They may not be manufactured with raw unattainable,” affirms José Manuel Barroso. our workers unilaterally with these measures,”
23.3% 34%
Austria
materials obtained from virgin forests or nat- Energy commissioner Andris Piebalgs tem- stated the seven governments. “We cannot
ural preserves. pers that, without naming the dissidents, with accept a relocation of jobs and production cen- 20.5% 31%
Portugal
“I would say that at least 20 of the 27 mem- ters because of increased costs incurred to 17.0% 30%
Denmark
Plan price tag: ber states have accepted their national targets reduce CO2 emissions,” they added. 18.0% 25%
Estonia
90 billion euros in 2020 16.0% 25%
Slovenia
Commission hoping for approval
For EU Commission President José Manuel 17.8% 24%
Romania
of its plan before the end of 2008
Barroso, “this is the most comprehensive pack- so far.” In fact, reactions from the leaders of 15.0% 23%
Lithuania
How to use pollution permits
age in the world”. It tackles the issue of cli- the 27 member states are mixed. At the end The EU Parliament and the Commission must 10.3% 23%
France
mate change at an estimated cost of “3 euros of February, seven EU countries asked for approve the draft directives as soon as pos- 8.7% 20%
Spain
per person per week.” Oil and gas imports would clarification on future rights to pollute for sible if Europe is to influence international
Italy, Ilva chemical production plant 6.9% 18%
Greece
✔
drop by 50 billion euros, or 0.3% of GDP. Europe’s heavy industry, concerned that the negotiations at the next climate conference
The EU’s energy action plan requires 5.8% 18%
Germany
the most pollution-intensive industries
Brandishing the report by Nicolas Stern, who proposed measures might weaken their com- in Poznan, Poland in late 2008 or, at the
in the European Union to purchase 5.2% 17%
Italy
“rights to pollute”.
attempted to calculate the cost of global warm- panies. The ministers in charge of Industry very latest, at the next conference in Copen- 9.4% 16%
Bulgaria
ing (5-20% of the world’s GDP), Commission in Austria, the Czech Republic, Finland, hagen at the end of 2009. The president of 3.1% 16%
Ireland
“Pollution permits” or
President Barroso considered that the “cost of France, Germany, Hungary and Luxembourg the Commission hopes to receive a green light
emissions below the allo- 7.2% 15%
Poland
“rights to pollute” refer to
doing nothing” would in any event be higher argued that “Our industries need clarification from Parliament and the member states by
cated quota. To ensure com- 1.3% 15%
United Kingdom
than the cost of the recommended measures. concerning their contribution to the fight the end of the year. He gave assurances that
tradable CO2 emission per- pliance, these companies
6.7% 14%
Slovakia
The tab for Europe is estimated at 0.6% of GDP, against climate change.” In a joint letter Slovenia, currently presiding the EU, and
mits. The tradable pollution must buy quotas on the
2.4% 14%
The Netherlands
or 90 billion euros in 2020. CO2 emission cred- sent to the Slovenian presidency of the EU France, which takes over in July, are both
permit market is like a finan- market. Supply comes from
6.1% 13%
Czech Republic
“determined to act expeditiously.” ■
its received under Kyoto Protocol mechanisms council and to EU Industry commissioner
cial market: it operates companies that were able to
2.2% 13%
Belgium
would reduce it to 0.45% of GDP. Günter Verheugen, these countries wrote that
based on the supply and reduce their emissions
2.9% 13%
Cyprus
“medium and long term investment planning
demand of capital that com- below their quotas. They can
Businesses required to buy CO2 4.3% 13%
Hungary
requires certainty on the future system as soon
panies allocate to CO2 emis- then sell their excess quo-
@
emission quotas 0.9% 11%
Luxembourg
as possible.” They also requested, “before 2011”,
sion reduction. Demand is tas on the market to fund For more information on the European
Commission's plan 0.0% 10%
Malta
One of the landmark measures of the Com- a review of specific risks to certain industries
generated by companies that their CO2 emission reduction
mission’s plan is to require the European that must reduce pollution while competing http://ec.europa.eu/france/pdf/climate-
are not able to reduce their efforts. 8.5% 20%
EU
change-memo_fr. pdf.
Union’s most pollution-intensive industries with imports from less responsible countries. Source: European Union, 2008.
16 17
/ ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

IN BRIEF KIOSK Read, view, discover
NATURAL GAS
MAPPING
INTERNET FOR MORE INFORMATION ON TOPICS DISCUSSED IN THIS ISSUE
Gazpromlooking to triple production
Satellite monitoring of European carbon
dioxide emissions from gigantic Shtokman field Renewable energies from A to Z All the news from the world of energy
www.energies-renouvelables.org www.enerzine.com
The European observation satel- centration of anthropogenic CO2 Although production has not yet of global demand. Gazprom heads
Website in French // Website in French //
lite ENVISAT has finished mapping (from human activities) is highest started at the huge Shtokman gas up a consortium including Total and
Free and easy registration gives visitors access to a wealth “Daily energy” is the creed of this fascinating site, which lives
human-origin carbon dioxide in the over the major industrial cities field, Russian gas company Gazprom StatoilHydro that will exploit of information, including “Systèmes solaires” (Solar systems), up to its promises. It covers all of the economic, technical,
atmosphere for the region of of Northern Europe. It is estimated already plans to triple its output. Shtokman starting in 2013. Consor- a magazine dedicated to all forms of renewable energy. The commercial and environmental news regarding the energy
site also features articles from Observ’ER. This bi-monthly industry. Register for free to receive a daily portal update.
Europe. This is a first! To distin- that fossil fuel combustion, indus- The Shtokman field lies beyond the tium president Iouri Komarov believes
publication of the Observatoire des énergies renouvelables
guish CO2 produced by human trial operations and transporta- polar circle in the middle of the that Gazprom should increase
(the Renewable Energy Observatory) presents the most recent data on various
activity from CO2 normally pres- tion release a total of 30 billion Barents Sea, 500 kilometers from the field’s annual output from forms of energy (wind power, photovoltaic, solar energy, geothermal, etc.).
23.7 billion m3 initially to 71 billion m3
ent in the atmosphere, German metric tons of CO2 each year. These the Russian coast. It is estimated
A model for waste management
Another major area covered by the website concerns the activities of the
Fondation énergies pour le monde (Energy for the World Foundation), which
researchers at the University of emissions increase the amount of to have 3.7 trillion cubic meters of by 2020. The gas is intended for
supplies energy to populations in need. www.andra.fr
Bremen processed and analyzed carbon dioxide normally found in natural gas, i.e. 2% of the planet’s Gazprom’s western clients. Part of
it will be liquefied. ■ Website in French and English //
data collected from 2003 to 2005 the atmosphere and exacerbate natural gas reserves or one year
The French national radioactive waste management agency,
by the SCHIAMACHY onboard sen- the greenhouse effect and global
Andra, is a state-funded industrial and commercial agency
warming. ■
sor. Results confirm that the con-
The world’s nuclear police created by the Waste Act of December 30, 1991. Andra operates
RESEARCH independently of the waste producers. It comes under the supervision of the French
www.iaea.org ministries for Industry, Research and the Environment and is responsible for the
CERN: large-scale proton collisions Website in English // long-term management of radioactive waste produced in France. The site tells you
all you always wanted to know about radioactivity and nuclear waste, including
The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) reports
what, where and how much.
to the United Nations Security Council. It promotes the
to begin this summer peaceful uses of nuclear energy and seeks to limit the
development of its military applications. The site explains the ongoing
missions and programs in which the agency is participating. It reports on
At last, the European Organization perconducting magnets in the tun-
inspections performed in all countries, including countries where the agency
for Nuclear Research, known as nel are chilled to a temperature of
“Let’s talk about recyclable energy! ”
is in a position to provide credible assurance regarding the absence
CERN, has completed the assembly close to absolute zero (minus of undeclared activities, and other countries, including Iran. In addition to
www.alternatives.areva.com
of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 271°C). Researchers will analyze the many activities of the IAEA, the site provides nuclear news from around
Website in French //
the globe as well as scientific and technical publications.
the world’s largest particle accel- collision results under the magni-
Recyclable energy is a fascinating subject with momentous conse-
erator with it 27-kilometer ring of fying lens in a vacuum equivalent
quences for society. How can we use nuclear energy to satisfy our
Source: Insitute of Environmental Physics (IUP) of the University of Bremen, German Aerospace Center
magnets. This scientific instru- to that of interstellar space. They needs? Why is it a “recyclable” energy? How is it produced? These
(DLR), European Space Agency.
ment spanning the border be- hope to discover the secret of questions are both captivating and controversial.
tween France and Switzerland physical phenomena that occurred On July 3, we launched our debate on nuclear waste: the risks, the drawbacks
ENVIRONMENT
BOOKS and the solutions. We encourage you to take part! The forum will be open until
near Geneva, more than 100 me- just after the Big Bang, including
British citizens soon August 18.
ters underground, will begin oper- the origin of particle mass and
their interactions. ■
ating in June 2008. The 9,300 su-
A treatise on energy issues
to be held accountable
around the globe
for their CO2 emissions?
The British government could be a own carbon consumption, transporta- Le Monde et l’Énergie - Enjeux géopolitiques (Volume II, Les Cartes en mains)
The CEA opens the book
[The World and Energy: the Geopolitical Challenges, Volume II, The Cards Are
pioneer in CO2 credits for individuals. tion, energy expenses, etc. Unused
in Our Hands] by Samuele Furfari, published by Éditions
on nuclear fuel
The idea is to give each individual an credits could be sold on a carbon mar-
Technip – 2007, 424 pages, 45 euros
annual quota of carbon credits ket similar to the one operating today
Les Combustibles nucléaires - Monographie du Commissariat à
instead of charging a carbon tax for industry. The Carbon Limited proj- This two-volume set explains the geopolitics of energy and
l’énergie atomique (Nuclear Fuel - A Monograph by the French
on the most fossil energy-inten- ect, under the aegis of the Royal outlines prospects for the planet’s future. The second volume
Atomic Energy Commission). Co-published by Le Moniteur and
sive products. Project proponents, Society for the Encouragement of describes the main energy markets. A major section of the
the CEA – 2008, 148 pages, 18 euros
including David Miliband, former Arts, Manufactures and Commerce book focuses on Europe’s energy supply and East-West rela-
Environment minister in the Blair gov- (RSA), was given three years to tions, particularly as concerns the gigantic natural gas This work recounts the history of the CEA’s fuel research and development programs just as
ernment and currently Minister of develop an individual carbon card reserves of Russia. Another section is dedicated to countries nuclear power begins a new cycle of growth. Fuel design and properties have a major impact
Foreign Affairs in the Brown govern- concept. Others outside the UK are that are “energy gluttons”, both in the developed world (the United States) and in on the performance and safety of nuclear reactors. Nuclear fuel optimization has significant
✔ Lowering the end-plug of the CMS detector
ment, describe it as a more egalitarian watching the experiment with inter- the emerging world (China and India). They are cultivating North-South relations, economic benefits, even though fuel represents a very small portion of the cost of electricity
This last component will be assembled underground with other slices of the
approach that makes each person est, including the Irish government with the United States turning to the Middle East and South America while China produced in nuclear reactors. This technical monograph summarizes the state-of-the-art on
Compact Muon Solenoid detector. CMS is one of the four large detectors of
the LHC particle accelerator, where proton-proton collisions will soon begin.
and experts in the United States. ■
responsible for managing his or her and India turn to Africa, but also with areas traditionally coveted by Europe. fuel behavior, its design limits and areas for further research and development.
18 19
/ ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES ISSUE 18 / ALTERNATIVES/

INTERACTIVE
Answers
… to your questions ✔ EGYPTE
Um appetebat
ab civit erat
inter fectus
convo cat is
suis clientib
Biofuels: it’s a matter of generation… The real benefits of daylight savings time
As a retired engineer interested in energy, I was a little bit disap- How does daylight savings time save energy, and how much?
pointed with your article on biofuels (Alternatives, no. 16), although Please enlighten me!
the title of the article rightly points out that the future is fraught Mr. Paul Sacla, Perpignan, France
with uncertainty. I would make the following comments: Daylight savings time refers to the daylight savings time was estab-
- First, these fuels are now increasingly referred to as “agro- practice of adjusting the official lished in 1975 after the first oil
fuels” to reflect the fact that production rarely meets “organic” time, usually by one hour, in the shock of 1974. Estimates pro-
criteria. Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used systematically spring or summer and early fall. duced in 1996 and 2006 indi-
in grain production and deforestation continues in Brazil! The goal is to save energy by mak- cate that the annual energy sav-
- Your article does not mention second-generation agrofuels, which ing our hours of activity coincide ings vary from 0.7 to 1.2 billion
have the advantage of using the entire plant. This technology with natural sunlight to limit the KWh. The latter figure represents
use of artificial lighting. Many 4% of all electricity used for
may still be in its infancy, but it could be a promising area for
countries take this approach, par- lighting in France, or the entire
research and development in Europe, rather than mimicking Brazil
ticularly in temperate regions electricity consumption of a city
or the United States in the case of ethanol.
where seasonal variations in day- of 200,000 inhabitants for an
- Another possibility for replacing fossil fuels is often overlooked:
light make it useful. In France, entire year.
biogas!
Mr. André Guéry (comment received by e-mail)
Follow-up on our previous website selection…
First, thank you for your acute
analysis. The debate has evolved
Belgium’s Nuclear Research Center, SCK*CEN, is contributing to sustain-
considerably since we published
able development with R&D, training, communication and services related
our article on biofuels two months
to nuclear safety and radiation protection, medical and industrial appli-
ago. Second-generation biofuels
cations, and the closed nuclear fuel cycle.
that use more diversified resources
Mrs. Anne Verledens, SCK*CEB Press Relations, Mol, Belgium
are now on the top of the agenda.
Our apologies for the erroneous is not involved in any defense nuclear
Several research areas have been
presentation in Alternatives no. 17. applications.
identified. The first would be to pro- green plant waste, sludge from
Contrary to what we implied, the CEN
duce synthetic biodiesel from sewage treatment stations, animal
vegetable oil or animal fat. A sec- waste such as pig slurry, and
ond, parallel path would be to agribusiness waste. Biogas is
produce biodiesel from ligno-cellu- approximately 65% methane and
lose biomass from plants, i.e. from 35% carbon dioxide. It can be used
WRITE TO US:
stalks and trunks. Biogas is pro- as fuel to produce heat or electric-
duced by fermentation of organic ity or as motor fuel. We will discuss This is your space, send us your questions!
We will respond in future issues.
waste in anaerobic conditions. It is these new technologies in an
possible to use household waste, upcoming issue.
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next issue… In the next issue… In the next issue… In the next issue… In the
Ewhere are the limits?
E Extreme oil:
Supplies of fossil fuels, mainly oil and gas, are dwindling. But with technology advancing, mining costs
falling and oil prices soaring, so-called “unconventional” oils are becoming profitable.
These heavy crude oils, located mainly in Canada and Venezuela, represent additional resources
practically equivalent to the existing reserves of Saudi Arabia. With long experience in offshore drilling,
oil companies are now exploiting “ultra-deep” deposits at depths of more than 1,500 meters.
The technological envelope is continually being pushed back. How far can it go?
04 / NUMÉRO 9 / ALTERNATIVES