1 the concept of information(1)

INFS 213INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
MRS. FLORENCE ENTSUA-MENSAH

CONCEPT OF INFORMATION(A brief Introduction)
MRS. FLORENCE ENTSUA-MENSAH 2
• The conception of information has changed
over the years with the strategic uses of
information systems. For the modern
organization, information is a resource that is
described as parallel if not more important to
land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship.

• Information is an elusive concept and there is
a continuing debate about its meaning and
about its relationship to its correlates such as
knowledge and data, and in business circles,
intelligence.

•
In everyday language, data, information, intelligence and even knowledge are used interchangeably.

DATA
•
DATA is a plural of a Latin word “Datum” which are facts, records of an event (i.e. figures) that has occurred or about to take place.
•
Data or facts are independent, unrelated, unlimited in number and meaningless as it stands.

DATA
•
Data simply exists and has no significance beyond its existence (in and of itself). It can exist in any form, usableor not. It does not have meaning of itself.
•
In other words, Data represents a fact or statement of event without relation to other things.
•
It may be considered as ‘raw’ material –i.e. needs processing to be meaningful.

DATA
•
Data is the starting point in providing information. It is the facts, figures, values, or even opinions which are needed to help with decision making.

Baby A
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WIEGHT (KG)
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INFORMATION
•
information is the aggregate of data or facts, systematically collated, structured or arranged to keep management posted with relevant developments in a manner as will facilitate decision-making in any one or more activities in the running of a business.
•
Information is necessarily meaningful data, whereas data may have no intrinsic meaning or significance in itself (O’Brien, 1970).

INFORMATION
O’Brien (2003) simply defines information as data that have been converted into a meaningful and useful context for specific end users. MRS. FLORENCE ENTSUA-MENSAH 11

At a Regional Seminar on National Information and Informatics
Policies for Africa held at Addis Ababa in 1988, Information was
defined as:
“...intelligence or knowledge that contributes to social, economic,
cultural and political well-being of society, irrespective of the form
it is encrypted in (text, figures, diagrams, etc.),
the medium it is stored in (paper, magnetic, etc.), the mode of
dissemination (oral, written or audio-visual, etc.),
the social activity that generated it (research, administration,
censuses, remote sensing, etc.),
or the organizing and disseminating institutions (libraries,
documentation centres, archives, statistical offices, mapping
agencies, geological surveys, computer centres, media and
broadcasting services, telecommunication services)”(Abate, 1988).

INFORMATION
•
Simply put, information is meaning assigned to data. It is data that have been processed into a form that is meaningful to a recipient or user and is of real or perceived value in current or prospective decision processes (Davis and Oslon, 1985).
•
Information must inform, that is, add to what we already know about an event or place; it must tell the recipient something that he/she did not know before or could not predict. Information adds to knowledge but must be relevant to some event, state or process.

KNOWLEDGE
•
What is Knowledge?
•
Stair & Reynolds (2003) define knowledge as an awareness and understanding of a set of information and ways that information can be used to support a specific task and make a decision.
•
Mckeown(2003) defines it as the capacity to request, structure and use information

THE KNOWLEDGE PYRAMID
INTELLIGENCE
KNOWLEDGE
INFORMATION
DATA

•
Mckeown(2003) defines it as the capacity to request, structure and use information
•
Smith and Medley (1987) also define it as human inferences and interpretations derived from processed information –it is a blend of human experience, analysis, deduction and assimilation.

Top level managers or strategic managers –these use knowledge
Middle level management or tactical staff –these use information
Operational staff/level –same as non-management staff
Non-management employees –these use facts, data etc to ensure that specific tasks are planned and carried out a day to day basis

CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION
•
Relevance
•
Timeliness
•
Accuracy
•
Clarity
•
Complete
•
Current
•
Cost and Value

Functions of Information
•
Elimination / Reduction of Uncertainty
•
Aids Strategic Planning
•
Communication
•
Serves as a Memory Supplement
•
Simplifies Situations and Problems MRS. FLORENCE ENTSUA-MENSAH 19

VALUES OF INFORMATION
This is the amount/ price a decision maker will be willing to pay for information prior to making decision.
Maximum price one should pay for knowing the actual value of an uncertainty before the decision on a course of action.

Three Main Reasons Why Information is considered Valuable are:
•
Strategic Resource
•
Competitive Advantage
•
Decision Making MRS. FLORENCE ENTSUA-MENSAH 21

What makes Information a Valuable commodity
•
Source of the information
•
Ease of Assimilation
•
Accessibility
•
Frequency of the Information

Information and communication
COMMUNICATION
•
Seitel(2004) defines communicationas a processof exchanging information, imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others. It also includes understanding others in return.
•
Lucey(1997) states that Communication involves the interchangeof facts, thoughts, value judgments and opinions.

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
SOURCE / MESSAGE
DESTINATION /
RECEIVER
CHANNEL/MEDIUM

CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION
•
Communication generally involves the exchange of information, thoughts, ideas and emotions. This process that involves a senderwho encodesand sends the message, which is then carried via the communication channel to the receiverwhere the receiver decodesthe message, processes the information and sends an appropriate reply normally via the same communication channel

CHANNELS/COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
•
Communicationrequires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient
–
The one who formulates the idea/information is the Senderor The Encoder
–
The means through which the idea/information is transmitted is the channel/ message
–
The one who receives and translates the idea is the decoder/recipient

The receiver sends feedbackif the message has been well understood. However, during the process, there may be some ‘noise’ or distortion of the message being sent and consequently, the appropriate feedback may not be obtained

•
The process of decoding the message by the receiver can be difficult especially if there is anything that gets in the way of the message.
•
Noise could range from lack of clarity of the message, to irrelevant or excessive volumes of information, or incomplete information.
•
Feedback is critical to the process of communication. A communicator must get feedbackfrom a receiver to know what messages are or are not getting through

Goals of Communication
•
Inform
•
Motivate
•
Persuade
•
To build mutual understanding.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Oral Communications

Written Communication

Electronic Communication

Visual Communication

ORAL COMMUNICATIONS
•
Oral communications refer to spoken, verbal or word of mouth transmission.
•
Example; Face to face communication, Telephonic Communication . . .

•
Advantages:
–
It is characteristic of its immediacy and personal touch, which might be difficult to capture in other forms of communication.
•
Disadvantages:
–
Since it is spoken, there is no written record of what has been said which can lead to disputes. Also in oral communication the persons involved do not have sufficient time to think through the answers they give. So they could arrive at some decision which they may not have suggested with hindsight.

Written Communication
•
Written communication refers to the written words and can be communicated in writing and sent by e mail, snail mails or memoranda (either printed or handwritten).
•
Examples are: Orders, Instructions, Letters, Memos, Reports, Policy manuals, Information Bulletin, Complaint System, Suggestion System, etc.

•
Advantages:
–
they provide a permanent record of events which can not be disproved.
–
It can be a potential record, capable of extended life and of being used again and again.
•
Disadvantages:
–
it takes time to produce and they tend to be formal and distant.
–
They can also cause problems with interpretation.
–
Instant feedback is not possible.

Visual Communication
•
Visual communication in part or whole relies on vision. It is described as the transmission of ideas and information in forms that can be read or looked upon.
•
It includes: signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, colourand electronic resources. It also explores the idea that a visual message accompanying text has a greater power to inform, educate, or persuade a person or audience.

Advantage
–
They can simplify messages with numbers in them and be used to illustrate techniques and procedures
Disadvantage
–
At times, they may be difficult to interpret without the reinforcement of the written and spoken word.

•
Electronic Communication:
–
communication that is generated and received electronically. This communication can be accessed by electronic mail (E-mail), videoconferencing, instant messaging…
•
Advantages/disadvantages:
–
Speed of access; as well as the unlimited access to global information.
–
Enhances communication and instant feedback.
–
It is machine dependent.
–
Power dependent

To sum it up…
•
All the types of Information could be as important as each other.
•
It is always important to consider your intended recipient before you choose your communication type.
•
You can also combine the types for clarity MRS. FLORENCE ENTSUA-MENSAH 41

Combination of VISUAL and WRITTEN

Think about this….
•
Which type of communication can the Braille system be categorised?
•
Any Questions so far?

The five (5) Cs of Communication

Clear

Complete

Concise

Correct

Courteous

•
Differences in People
–
Differences in personal, Cultural, Educational, ...
–
Status differences
–
Personal biases
–
Fear and Emotional overtone
•
Language
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

Breaking the Barriers of Communication
•
With your knowledge so far how do you think some of the barriers of communication can be surmounted? MRS. FLORENCE ENTSUA-MENSAH 46

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